Street gangs are rapidly evolving, becoming regional, national, and even international in terms of criminal operations. This globalization of gang-related criminal activity has been facilitated by improved technology, advancements in telecommunications, and increased mobility due to a vast and ever growing network of interstate highways and transatlantic airline flights. As a result, what once were neighborhood criminal gangs are now more organized gangs conducting criminal operations in multiple cities, states, and foreign countries. Some have evolved into transnational gangs that routinely conduct criminal activity that is planned in one country but executed in another country. After reviewing varying definitions and classifications of gangs, this article focuses on the psychological control of gangs and the transformation of street gangs into transnational gangs.
Definition
There is no uniform definition of what constitutes a transnational gang or even a criminal gang. The definitions differ from state to state and from country to country. But, a criminal gang is generally defined as:
A group of three or more individuals, who have a common bond, establish territorial turf, and regularly conduct gang-related criminal activity.
In contrast, a transnational gang infers a much larger territorial turf that spans the borders of two or more foreign countries. The transnational gang is a sophisticated criminal enterprise that routinely plans and controls criminal activity in one country that is then executed in another country. Its criminal operations are global in nature, often spanning the borders of several international countries.
Classifications
First, Second, and Third Generation Gangs
For purposes of comparison, John P. Sullivan first classified criminal gangs into three separate categories. The first category, the first generation gang, is characterized as the traditional neighborhood or criminal street gang. It is local in nature, turf-oriented, and generally limited to a somewhat small geographic area. Its gang-related criminal activities, membership, and organizational structure are also limited. For the most part, the criminal activities are opportunistic, individualistic, and unorganized. Generally, the criminal activities include localized drug trafficking, extortion, burglaries, robberies, battery, petty theft, and murder.
The second generation gang is more evolved, more entrepreneurial, and enjoys more structured leadership than the first generation gang. A second generation gang is most often a well- established criminal street gang. Its criminal activities are organized, and the primary focus of the gang is financial gain, market share, and profit. Criminal operations, such as drug trafficking and extortion, are more complex and may span multiple municipalities, cities, or states. If the gang is located near a foreign country, the criminal operations may span international borders.
Due to the larger network of criminal activity of a second generation gang, leadership is more defined. It often has a set of rules and regulations, requires an oath of loyalty, and administers punishment for disobedient gang members or disrespectful rival gang members. The initiation phase most often includes a “blood in, blood out” loyalty pledge whereby the only way out of the gang is death.
The second generation criminal gang provides not only a sense of family and belonging but also a means of financial support. In many instances, it is the gang member’s source of income, family, and personal life—all rolled into one. It represents the essence, if not the totality, of the gang member’s existence. As a result, members of a second generation gang are willing to make extreme personal sacrifices and resort to acts of violence if threatened by a rival gang or a local law enforcement agency.
As the second generation gang grows, members are likely to establish business connections and alliances with other criminal gangs. If the second generation gang is located near an international border or a major drug trafficking route, its members may also establish alliances with drug cartels or more sophisticated third generation gangs. Once established, these alliances serve to accelerate the evolution of a second generation gang into third generation gang status.
The third generation gang is characterized as an international criminal enterprise. It routinely plans and controls criminal activity in one country that is executed in another country. Most often, it has extensive resources, controls international criminal operations, and is highly structured. Because of the magnitude and scope of criminal operations, the third generation gang has enormous power, not only financially but also politically. It is capable of infiltrating, corrupting, and controlling local governments.
Transnational Criminal Gangs
The third generation gang is also known as a transnational gang. Due to the highly organized nature of its criminal operations, the transnational gang is capable of overpowering less powerful gangs in order to gain market share, expand drug trafficking routes, and control larger geographical territories. In addition, transnational gangs are able to engage in mercenary operations that openly threaten local governments, law enforcement agencies, or rival gangs that interfere with gang-related criminal operations.
As a result, the transnational criminal gang exerts control over residents, business operations, and traditional forms of government that operate within its territorial boundaries. To maintain power and control, the transnational gang is often willing to resort to extreme acts of violence. These acts of violence may include torturing, burning, or decapitating rival gang members as well as law enforcement officers, government officials, and judges.
In most instances, the transnational gang is well established, well financed, and highly structured. The gang is willing to use violence to maintain control and often recruits members who have military backgrounds or training in firearms or explosives. In turn, this paramilitary organizational style often attracts extremely vicious individuals who are willing to break the law and commit acts of violence in order to further the interests of the transnational gang.
Because of its size and scope of criminal operations, the transnational criminal gang is able to assemble large numbers of gang members from different states or countries if threatened by a rival gang, law enforcement officers, or local governments. To complicate matters, local government officials or law enforcement officers may be on the payroll of the transnational gang. As a consequence, some transnational gangs are being labeled strategic threat groups (STGs) by the state or foreign country where the transnational gang operates. El Salvador, for example, has gone even further by declaring Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and 18th Street Gang as terrorist organizations.
STGs
The term STG is generally reserved for gangs or criminal enterprises that are sufficient in size and power to pose a threat to correctional institutions, towns, cities, or foreign governments. They may include prison gangs, transnational gangs, or any gang that is strong enough to act as a de facto form of government that exerts control on smaller gangs, law enforcement agencies, local governments, or individuals residing within its area of territorial control. Because of their power and size, STGs operate with impunity alongside more traditional forms of government. The STGs may even be so powerful that local law enforcement agencies avoid interference with the STG operations.
In many cases, transnational gangs have become serious STGs. They frequently become financial, political, and criminal enterprises capable of displacing more traditional forms of government. In many cases, the transnational gang controls government officials or law enforcement officers through bribes and various forms of threats. In fact, the bribes may lead to protection of the transnational gang’s territory by the local law enforcement agency.
In some cases, transnational gang leaders become warlords, or political powers, that control certain geographical areas. If this occurs, the transnational gang becomes a state within itself, without recognized borders, that has enormous financial and political clout, maintains an active asymmetric army of gang soldiers, and even collects taxes from local businesses. In such instances, the transnational gang is a serious STG, posing a threat to the local form of government.
Psychological Control Over Local Citizens
The transnational criminal gang is often the only viable means of income for local citizens. It offers a way out of poverty, or as stated by local citizens, a better way of life. The criminal gang may even be perceived as a Robin Hood that robs from the rich (i.e., the government) and gives to the poor. It provides social control, protection, employment, and stability that might not have been provided by more traditional forms of government. It becomes the recognized form of government that replaces the more traditional, local form of government. In essence, it becomes a quasi-state that establishes its own rules and regulations and operates with impunity, often coexisting with official and more traditional forms of government in the area.
In addition, the transnational gang may use other forms of coercion to control rival gangs, locals, and coexisting government. Such tactics might include
- bribery of government officials;
- use of firearms, explosives, and arson to overcome police and rival gangs;
- violence, brute force, and military tactics;
- terroristic forms of violence such as burning and decapitation; or
- torture to obtain information.
With such tactics, transnational gangs often operate with little or no concern about police or military interference. Government officials and law enforcement officers become corrupted by bribes or threats of violence. In extreme instances, the government officials or law enforcement officers may even become agents of the transnational gang that provide more formal means of protection for gang-related criminal enterprises.
Transformation of Neighborhood Gangs Into Transnational Criminal Gangs
MS-13 is an example of a street gang that evolved into a transnational criminal gang. It was created in the 1980s by Salvadorians who fled El Salvador’s civil war to Los Angeles, CA, but were persecuted and threatened by the well-established Los Angeles street gangs. Initially, MS-13 was a small, neighborhood gang. But, due to military training achieved during the Salvadorian civil war (1979–1992), the gang became known for ruthless acts of violence.
Today, MS-13 accepts members from El Salvador, Mexico, Central America, and parts of South America. The only requirement is military-style training and the willingness to commit acts of violence on behalf of MS-13. With this mentality, MS-13 has grown from a neighborhood street gang into a transnational gang that conducts criminal operations in Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Colombia, and other Central American countries.
This growth, in only 35 years, is due in part to the deportation of undocumented MS-13 gang members from the United States. Once deported, the MS-13 gang member establishes a new gang set. Often, this gang set is located in a less developed country with little training or resources allocated to combat the highly structured and highly organized transnational gang. In addition, the newly formed MS-13 gang set maintains contact with fellow members in the United States through the Internet, social media, and cell phones. This serves to fuel the spread of drug trafficking and other internationally based criminal operations.
The evolution of MS-13 is not unlike other transnational gangs. One of the first street gangs in the United States to be classified as a transnational gang was the 18th Street Gang. It emerged in the late 1960s when the Los Angeles–based Clanton Street Gang refused to admit anyone to membership who was not of 100% Mexican ancestry. For protection, mixed-race Mexicans and non- Mexicans joined together to form the 18th Street Gang. Because the 18th Street Gang accepts persons of mixed racial and ethnic backgrounds, it rapidly grew in membership, power, and reputation for violence. It has grown from a neighborhood street gang into a transnational criminal gang with criminal operations spanning all 50 states, Mexico, Central America, and parts of South America.
The Future of Transnational Criminal Gangs
The future of transnational criminal gangs is uncertain. Admittedly, advancements in technology, social media, the Internet, and telecommunications have fueled the growth of regional, national, and transnational gangs. Gang-related criminal activities that once were limited to local neighborhoods now span not only state but also international borders. As a consequence, criminal gangs are rapidly evolving from localized, neighborhood street gangs into regional, national, and even transnational criminal gangs.
The next stage of evolution most likely will be related to future advancements in technology, communications, social media, and the Internet. With such advancements, more organized gangs such as national and transnational gangs are likely to engage in more virtual crimes. They are also likely to engage in highly profitable forms of cybercrime such as human trafficking, pornography, credit card fraud, and possibly cyberterrorism.
References:
- Baker, T. (2012). North American criminal gangs: Street, prison, outlaw motorcycle and drug trafficking organizations. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
- Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2011). 2011 National Gang Threat Assessment—Emerging trends. Retrieved from https://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/ publications/2011-national-gang-threat-assessment
- Federal Bureau of Investigation, National Gang Intelligence Center. (2015). National Gang Report 2015. Retrieved from https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=792574
- Gray, H. (2009). Gangs and transnational criminal threaten Central American stability. U.S. Army War College, Strategy Research Project. Retrieved August 16, 2016, from https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did =740050
- Sullivan, J. P., & Bunker, R. (2007). Third generation gang studies: An introduction. Journal of Gang Research, 14(4), 1–10.
- Wilds, M. (2011). A quick reference guide to gang symbols (2nd ). Dallas, TX: Imprimatur Press.