Communication as an academic field of research in Western Europe scarcely predates World War II and, with minor exceptions, did not develop as a full program of study until the last quarter of the twentieth century. The main exception was Germany, where a press science (Zeitungswissenschaft) was quite well established in some German universities before
In Latin America communication studies started during the late 1960s, and were characterized by two very different conceptions. On the one hand, there was the functional paradigm, from the United States (where many Latin American professors had been trained), which related the study of communication to the diffusion of innovations, and which was part of
Media communication, mass communication, political communication, and other aspects of social communication represent a dynamic academic field in contemporary central and Eastern Europe and Russia. In particular, communication on the societal level, which was the subject of the most visible and remarkable changes during the 1990s (reintroduction of “free” media and deep structural change of
Academic achievement is axiomatic to career development processes. In people’s lives, academic choices, barriers, or opportunities occur early and frequently, and they have a pervasive and lasting influence on career development. For example, a middle school student’s choice of or opportunity for educational curricula limits or broadens the student’s subsequent opportunity for learning experiences; a
An achievement test is any test designed to assess an individual’s attainment of a specific knowledge or skill in a specified content area within which the individual has received some level of instruction or training. However, achievement tests are often confused with aptitude tests. Aptitude tests may not differ in form from achievement tests, but
Academic achievement assessment in school psychology is a critical and multifaceted practice essential to understanding and enhancing the educational journey of students. This article explores the historical evolution, theoretical foundations, purpose, and methodologies of academic achievement assessment within the context of school psychology. It delves into the pivotal role school psychologists play in this process