The term “critical approach” refers to a broad, interdisciplinary body of theory and research that conceives of organizations as dynamic sites of control and resistance. “Critical studies” covers several distinct yet related intellectual traditions, each of which examines the communicative practices through which control and resistance are produced, reproduced, and transformed in the process of
Postmodern approaches to organizational communication elude easy description. Broadly speaking, they are diverse forms of inquiry that challenge and reconstruct systems of power, identity, and representation. Since the 1980s, postmodern approaches, situated with reference to a larger critical tradition, have burgeoned in organizational communication studies. Under this rubric, many extant theories and methods in organizational
Advancing technology, global connectivity, and ethical lapses have resulted in an escalation in the frequency and intensity of organizational crises over the past two decades. Commensurate with the increase in crisis events, academic research in crisis communication has expanded, focusing predominantly on the role of communication in predicting, managing, and resolving crisis events. Definition Of
Interest in the relationship between group communication and group problem-solving performance has a long and somewhat controversial history. Many trace interest in problem-solving in the group context back to the early work of Maximilian Ringelmann (1861–1931). Ringelmann first measured the effort of a single individual working alone, then measured how much more effort was achieved
When a decision-making group comes into discussion intending to choose among a set of possible courses of action, any disagreement among the members of the group regarding the best option normally results in some form of social influence. We assume that group members enter discussion having formulated a “pre-discussion preference” for a particular option, that
Interorganizational communication (IOC) emphasizes relationships organizations have with external constituents as opposed to relationships that occur internally. IOC research considers issues like information flows, information sharing, reputation, cooperation, competition, coalition building, and power. IOC theoretical developments are substantially multidisciplinary. Communication researchers often emphasize the understanding of who communicates with whom and about what. Economists and
In his monumental work Economy and society, Weber (1978, 1st pub. 1922), explained bureaucracy both in terms of principles of societal order and with respect to its place in the modern world. In seeking to answer the fundamental question “How do we understand un-coerced obedience?” Weber examined the history of societies and empires ranging from
Communication and other social networks have been the subject of considerable scholarship since the eighteenth century (Mattelart 2000), but the past two decades have produced unprecedented growth in network theorizing and research. Further, this interest in communication and information networks now spans the social sciences, including sociology, psychology, history, political science, organization science, and economics
Emotional communication is central to many jobs. Stockbrokers express aggression, nurses communicate care, and emotions such as shame, pride, and fear are central in organizational evaluation. Nonetheless, organization studies have traditionally written out emotion, treating it as a private issue, a barrier to effectiveness, or something that should be controlled. Early research suggested that organizations
The study of group communication focuses on (1) the nature and effects of symbol usage in relatively small collectivities (a minimum of three people) on individual, relational, and collective processes and outcomes, as well as (2) how groups and group processes themselves are products of such symbolic activity. The study of how groups employ communication
The annaliste historian Fernand Braudel asserts that dealing with the concept of liberty, “in all its connotations including ‘taking liberties,’ ” is the distinguishing mark of western civilization, the socio-political problem that most persistently occurs from the fifth century to the present. The liberty to communicate, to impart and receive information of all kinds, is
The two-step flow of communication hypothesis was first formulated by Paul F. Lazarsfeld and his colleagues in their classical study on the 1940 American presidential election (1944). It states that there is usually no direct influence of the mass media on the general public. Rather, “ideas often flow from radio and print to the opinion
Paralanguage refers to verbal communications that have meaning but are not part of the system of words and grammatical rules we call language. Paralanguage includes such elements as pitch, amplitude, rate, and voice quality. Laughter, imitatitive speech, and prosody are also forms of paralanguage. Paralanguage emphasizes the fact that people convey meaning not only in
What are the means of communication used by people when they conduct their everyday lives; and what meanings does this communication have for them? These are central questions guiding the ethnography of communication. The ethnography of communication is an approach, a perspective, and a method to and in the study of culturally distinctive means and
In interpersonal situations, language can be used to convey information about one’s personality, temperament, social status, group belonging, and so forth. Although many of us like to think that we interact essentially the same way to virtually every person we encounter, thanks to fairness and our integrity, this simply is not true. In most instances
Marital communication refers to the communication and social interaction that transpire between spouses. However, the study of marital communication is often informed by and extended to a range of couples in a “marriage-like” setting such as cohabiting and same-sex couples. In most industrialized societies as many as 90 percent of the population marry, and in
Every act and artifact of communication is open to evaluations of its quality, i.e., how well it was accomplished. Because such evaluations involve individual and social judgments of communicative performance, especially in interpersonal contexts, and because virtually all relevant achievements of interpersonal communication depend on performance and subsequent evaluations, a theory of interpersonal communication competence
A communication rule is a description of a communicative regularity relevant to social interaction. The communicative regularities contained within rules are normative, in the sense that they are what is expected to occur by participants in social engagements and their absence usually results in social disapproval or sanction on the part of those participants toward
Comforting communication encompasses the verbal and nonverbal messages that people use when trying to reduce others’ emotional anguish. Thus, comforting represents a strategic communication activity that has the primary goal of alleviating another’s emotional distress; it may also aim to enhance the other’s self-esteem, facilitate the other’s coping, and assist the other’s problem-solving in a
Communication apprehension refers to one’s anxious feelings about communication. McCroskey defines communication apprehension as “an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with another person or persons” (1977, 78). Communication apprehension has been one of the most studied individual differences in the field of interpersonal communication, under a variety of
Several emerging and existing international communication agencies spearhead the governance of the global media and communications environment. International communication agencies have both specialized and collective responsibilities to advance multilateral and multi-stakeholder cooperation and collaboration on the broad issues of global media governance, including the development of regulation instruments and guidelines for intellectual property, media concentration
Major social changes of the twentieth century include international air travel, global business expansion, increased migration across national boundaries, and recognition of the civil rights of various minority groups. This means that individuals will frequently come into contact with people from other nations and from other cultural groups within a large and diverse nation such
In the twenty-first century mankind lives in a more multicultural environment than ever before. For many health practitioners this means they have to interact with people from different cultures. Good communication is vital to effective health-care, so communication problems in intercultural encounters have the potential to lead to patient misdiagnosis. In such encounters health practitioners
Humans communicate verbally through words and nonverbally via facial expressions and body movements. Nonverbal communication refers to any human behavior, other than words, that serves a communicative purpose. Such behavior can occur voluntarily or involuntarily, either simultaneously with words or alone. Nonverbal communicative behaviors that have been under intensive research include high–low context, silence, turn-taking
Relationships and communication between social groups of all kinds is an increasingly pressing topic in a globalized world in which there are conflicts of resources, religions, and ideologies. Discursive psychology’s distinct contribution is to try to understand this topic through studying how discourse works in the practical settings in which intergroup issues become live. These
Specific communication disabilities affect the ability to understand and produce language. The most common hearing disabilities are congenital deafness and age-related hearing impairments. The primary causes for difficulties with the production of spoken language are traumatic brain injury, stroke, and dementia (Alzheimer’s and related diseases). Of additional relevance is the impact of visual impairment on
What are the means of communication used by people when they conduct their everyday lives; and what meanings does this communication have for them? These are central questions guiding the ethnography of communication. The ethnography of communication is an approach, a perspective, and a method to and in the study of culturally distinctive means and
Communication in its simplest form refers to the ongoing process of sharing and understanding meaning. Many intercultural communication problems stem from the different ways that messages are composed, transmitted, and interpreted. Human beings depend on a variety of philosophical, social, psychological, and institutional standards or criteria of conduct to arrive at reasonable, appropriate, and meaningful
It is widely accepted that communication, whether presented as a manner of acting, a style of conversing, or a fashioning of language, functions in many modes to bring individuals to some awareness of each other as members of a collective. This conceptualization of modes as signifying forms of social activity is in contrast to the
Traditional Islamic modes of communication have evolved to become very effective at enhancing conformity and obedience, and in strengthening ingroup cohesion. Three illustrative examples are discussed here: the azan (call to prayer), the daily prayer, and the month of Ramadan. It is particularly important to attend to Islamic modes of communication, because Islam is the
An understanding of values and worldviews can greatly inform our understanding of the modes of both face-to-face and mediated communication in the so-called western world. The terms “eastern” and “western” are problematic. Stevenson (1994, 178), for example, classifies Japanese media systems under his rubric of Western mass media. However, for want of alternatives, these terms
Defining communication in Africa as well as the African diaspora is a complex task involving both cultural commonalities and differences. African communication itself reflects a complex mix of cultural values from the cultures and traditions spread across the vast continent. While some traditional values have been fervently preserved throughout the continent, the myriad of outside
The Latin root of “communication” – communicare – means “to share” or “to be in relation with.” Through Indo-European etymological roots, it further relates to the words “common,” “commune,” and “community,” suggesting an act of “bringing together”. The notion of communication has been present and debated in the west from pre-Socratic times. The Hippocratic Corpus
Communication anxiety/avoidance is one of the most studied phenomena in the field of communication. Communication apprehension (CA) is defined as “the fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with others” (McCroskey 1984). CA is problematic when anxiety reaches levels that interfere with goal attainment. Inherently social, communication apprehension is emotionally based, although CA
Health communication campaigns have long been a tool used to influence the health of the public in countries around the world. Campaigns are an organized set of communication activities to produce health effects or outcomes in a relatively large number of individuals, typically within a specified period of time (Rogers & Storey 1987). The history
The functions of modern mass media to give information, to provide orientation, and to promote health-related behaviors are widely recognized within the field of health communication. The media of television, radio, newspapers, and magazines influence intentionally or unintentionally, and mass media health campaigns are used purposively and effectively to change health practices. Nevertheless, the existing
The news media are an important source of health information, not just for the general public, but also for patients, for doctors and the medical community, for entertainment producers in search of story ideas, and for policymakers and funding organizations. Journalistic practices favor the use of established sources, so public health and medical journals are
Eliminating health disparities is one of the most pressing global health issues. In the United States, health disparities have been examined primarily as differences in groups based on racial, class, and ethnic classifications. Globally, the issue focuses on the differences between developing and developed nations in health status and access to state of the art
Patient–provider communication, interaction between patients and professional and familial caregivers in formal health-care contexts, has significant influences on healthcare outcomes. During health-care, patients interact with numerous health-care professionals (e.g., primary providers, specialists, nurses) and familial providers (e.g., elderly adults’ children, spouses, young children’s parents). Familial providers interact with health-care professionals on behalf of patients (Eggly
With the general growth of gender research across multiple disciplines, it is not surprising that issues surrounding women’s language and communication have become a popular area of study. Research in this area has been traced back to a 1664 report that cited differences in speech forms of “Carib” women and men (Jesperson 1922). This research
Feminist ethics is concerned with how people can live together with others in healthy, productive ways and how we can build social or political structures to support this. As a way of thinking and acting that is fundamentally transformative and concerned with human good, feminism is itself normative. Its resistance to codification and preference for
There is no more difficult concept to clearly define than that of propaganda. Countless books and learned essays have grappled with a definition of this persuasive practice that would encompass all of its many manifestations. The difficulty in arriving at a definition that satisfies all aspects of this particular type of persuasive behavior is compounded
Since the modern era in the west, art has increasingly been defined as distinct from communication. Since Kant and Hume, discriminations of sensory beauty and “delicacy of taste” have been invoked in judgments of aesthetic value that separate those forms of communication that qualify as art from those that do not. Gross has argued that
Communication and communication technologies are intrinsic to the idea of terrorism as formulated and understood from the nineteenth century onwards. The discourse of terrorism has come to be symbiotically linked to communication technologies as state and nonstate actors across the globe use and exploit technological advances to further their causes. Schmid and de Graaf (1982
Teacher communication concern (hereafter abbreviated TCC) is a concept and research line that developed from attempts to describe specific behaviors of teachers that could influence student learning. Initially conceived as three factors of worry or anxiety about self (confidence and competence as teacher), task (mastering the specific skills), and impact (affecting learning), it is an
Education scholars interested in the communication that transpires within the classroom have often mentioned the importance of studying the teacher as a pivotal source of that communication. After searching the literature, Norton (1977) wrote that very few studies had specifically investigated teacher communication style as it relates to teacher effectiveness, though many of the exciting
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) includes electronic mail, group discussion systems, and real-time chat systems through which people send messages to others, either to a defined individual or set of recipients, or to a messaging space where many people may read and reply to others’ messages. Much CMC is used for professional work and to facilitate commerce;
Pedagogy is commonly defined as the principles and methods of instruction. Instructional pedagogy, at all levels, is mediated through the communication process. Successful pedagogy is thus dependent on successful communication among teachers and students. However, all teachers do not effectively use communication to support instruction. A teacher’s thorough knowledge of content does not mean that
Communication apprehension (CA) intervention techniques are systematic, empirically grounded methods employed in a variety of settings to reduce communication-related anxiety, most commonly in public speaking contexts, where many speakers experience stage fright. Communication scholars have developed, adapted, and tested a variety of effective methods to treat speech anxiety due to its pervasive nature and deleterious
Because the ability to communicate is considered a major – perhaps even the primary – defining characteristic of humanity, people assume that, throughout human history, elders have taught the young this essential survival skill. Despite agreement on the importance of learning to communicate, there is no consensus about the particular goals of communication education or
The study of learning has been undertaken since the beginning of the twentieth century and has been heavily influenced by psychology. Although multiple definitions exist, learning has been generally defined as a persistent change in behavior or performance as a result of some stimulus. This definition encompasses both behavioral and cognitive aspects of learning. Behaviorism
Communication infrastructure refers to the backbone of the communications system upon which various broadcasting and telecommunication services are operated. This can be built from copper cable, fiber, or wireless technologies utilizing the radio frequency spectrum, such as microwave and satellite. The infrastructure is the core component that connects upstream production, such as voice, data and
Communication technologies have been seen both as instrumental and as destructive to democratic processes. The advent of the print media is intrinsically linked with the struggle for civil liberties and the construction of contemporary nations. At the same time their destructive capacities became equally clear when, for instance, at the end of the nineteenth century
Communication technology standards are technical specifications that enable technological components from different suppliers to work together within a given communication system. Some standards refer to the physical interfaces between network and terminal equipment. Others refer to logical elements expressed in algorithms and embodied in software. In digital systems, many standards involve both physical and logical
Crime and communications are perennial and pervasive features of society, while equally subject to dramatic change. They have a complex and evolving relationship, covering both the communications function or service and its realization through communication technology. Attempts to control crime involve both conventional law enforcement/criminal justice and broader, more “scientific” approaches to prevention. Crime is
Communication within friendship is important for human development throughout life. Beginning in childhood, friendships shape and reflect developments in social cognition, perspective-taking abilities, moral comportment, and cooperation as equals. During adolescence and younger adulthood, friendships cultivate ethical sensibilities, and understandings and practices of intimacy, identity, and sociability. Across life people describe three benefits of close
The term “intergenerational communication” applies to interactions involving individuals who are from different age cohorts or age groups. Families provide ready examples of individuals whose communication would be classified as intergenerational: parent and child, grandparent and grandchild, aunt and niece, to name a few. These interactions stand in contrast to intragenerational communication or communication between
For the sponsoring organization, the role of marketing communications includes distributing information, promoting image and reputation, creating and stabilizing product and service demand, emphasizing features and benefits, providing competitive differentiation, generating sales leads, ensuring customer retention and loyalty, and motivating staff. To accomplish these and other objectives, there are many marketing communication tools available. They
Communication plays a substantial role in influencing understandings and self-presentations with regard to age. While the immutable passing of time (and rising chronological age) is at the heart of life-span development issues, our age group identifications and the age groups into which we are categorized are not deterministically organized by chronological age. Rather, age identities
This article focuses on communication skills associated with success in same-sex friendship across the life-span. The ability to maintain a variety of relationships throughout life is important to people’s well-being, of which friendship is among the most significant. Individuals who lack friends experience myriad adjustment problems including drug and alcohol abuse, academic failure, antisocial conduct
Communication patterns in families refer to repeated interaction styles and behaviors. A single family member’s communication behaviors over time can be patterned, but family communication scholars tend to focus on patterns among family members. Family relationships are typically involuntary and long-lasting (Vangelisti 1993). One usually cannot choose one’s siblings, for instance, and sibling relationships –
For some, communication management is a special way of managing; for others it is the steering of all communications in the context of the organization; for yet others it is the same as public relations (PR), i.e. managing communication itself. This article features the second approach, i.e., communication management as the steering of all communications
Perhaps the best way to define corporate communication is to look at the way in which the function developed in companies. Until the 1980s, professionals responsible for communication within their organizations had used the term “public relations” to describe communication with stakeholders (a term still used in academic circles across the world). This public relations
The topic of crisis communication has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers in public relations, corporate communication, marketing, and management. The ever-growing body of research is both a blessing and a curse. There is a large amount of information, which is good. However, the insights are scattered throughout a myriad of books and
Financial communication entails all of the strategies, tactics, and tools used to share financial data and recommendations with investors and other interested parties. Around the world, companies need strong, proactive financial communication competencies to successfully help shape the evolution of capital markets for themselves and their industries. In return, companies likely will see the benefits
Participatory communication stresses the importance of cultural identity of local communities and of democratization and participation at all levels – international, national, local, and individual. However, the point of departure must be the community. It is at the community level that the problems of living conditions are discussed, and interactions with other communities are elicited
Development and communication in Asia is a vast and complicated topic for two main reasons. First, Asia comprises a substantial portion of the earth’s land mass and population. Second, the direction as well as the velocity of economic development in Asian countries varies profoundly. Economists have divided Asia into five categories, including Japan, People’s Republic
The use of strategic communication has an ancient history dating back at least to Aristotle’s Rhetoric. But technological and theoretical advances beginning in the twentieth century, most notably the growth of electronic media and media studies, have resulted in dramatic improvements in the scale, sophistication, and effectiveness of purposive communication and in the rise of
A universally valid and widely accepted definition of the field does not exist, but three conceptualizations have prevailed in the western world, the first two emanating from the US and the third from Latin America. The first, development communication, is the notion that mass media are capable of creating a public atmosphere favorable to change
This article offers an overview of development communication in the region that the west calls the Middle East, but which in Arabic is known as “al-Mashrik al Arabi,” or the Arab East. The area comprises three Arab regions that fall between the eastern Mediterranean, the Arabian (Persian) Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean.
Effective development communication programs require a clearly defined strategy with specific goals established in advance. Communication goals may range from relatively short-term changes in individual behavior (for example, improving health or environmental practices) to relatively long-term changes in social or structural conditions (for example, increased economic opportunity, increased gender equity, improved environmental quality). Goals must
This article addresses research that evaluates communication programs designed to bring about change in individual behavior and social norms. These programs or campaigns may focus on health, agriculture, environment, water and sanitation, democracy and governance, gender equity, human rights, and related areas. They can be referred to by different labels: strategic communication, behavior change communication
“Empowerment” generally refers to development approaches that “enable” the beneficiaries, especially the poor and marginal and excluded groups such as women, to take initiatives to solve their own problems of poverty, exclusion, and chronic dependency (Narayan 2005). The role of government and nongovernmental agencies is to encourage and support local organization efforts, help local groups
Information is critical to the social and economic activities that comprise the development process. Communication technology as a means of sharing information is not simply a connection between people, but a link in the chain of the development process itself. In general, the ability to access and share information can contribute to the development process
“Development” refers to the process of social change that has as its objective the promotion of physical and material progress. The “silent engine” that drives this development endeavor is communication. In the developed world, development communication is geared toward addressing the dysfunctions of physical and material progress. In the developing world, it is concerned with
Psychology is generally concerned with studying the mind, the brain, and human behavior. While popular media often focus on clinical psychology (the study and treatment of mental illness), there are many other forms of psychology, ranging from neuropsychology to cultural psychology to sports psychology. This article largely focuses on experimental psychology, an overarching branch that
A model is a simplified description in graphic form of some aspect of reality. A model of communication seeks to show the main elements of any structure or process of human social action and the relations between these elements, plus any flow or exchange that takes place. The main benefits are to organize disparate elements
The word “communication” is descended from the Latin noun communicatio, which meant a sharing or imparting. From the root communis (common, public), it has no relation to terms such as union or unity, but rather is linked to the Latin munus (duty, gift), and thus has relatives in such terms as common, immune, mad, mean
Communication theory is heir to classic issues in the history of ideas. If philosophy has traditionally asked how human knowledge of reality may be possible, communication theory addresses the media, modalities, and messages by which humans exchange, reflect on, and enact different perspectives on reality. Revisiting a number of key epistemological, ethical, and political issues
Modern research methods for communication and social change reflect a tension between collecting data at the individual level while making inferences at macro-levels such as health-care systems, communities, and nations. This tension becomes more palpable when measuring the concerns of historically underserved, difficult-to-reach populations, those suffering the greatest inequalities in access to information, civic participation
The main objective of prevention is to avoid diseases by reducing risks that may negatively affect health. The prevention approach complements the health promotion approach. While prevention intends to avoid disease and reduce risks, health promotion focuses on resources that sustain the opportunity of healthy living. Even though the two concepts are sometimes used synonymously
Risk communication is a field of communications research that is used by a variety of professionals, including public relations and other professionals involved in purposive communications in government and the private sector. Risk communication can be defined as a process that increases the selectivity of the perception and communication of decision consequences. The decision consequences
Communication inequality refers to differences in the generation, manipulation, and distribution of information among social groups, as well as differences in: (1) access to and use of information channels, (2) attention to media content, (3) recall, knowledge, and comprehension, and (4) capacity to act on relevant information among individuals (Viswanath 2006). The intellectual origins of
Crises and disasters are increasingly common in their occurrence and increasingly widespread in their impact. Events such as the Indian Ocean tsunami and Hurricane Katrina illustrate the potential devastation caused by natural disasters, particularly as they interact with human development. Technology-based disasters, sometimes called accidents, such as the Chernobyl nuclear plant explosion, the leak of
“Environmental communication” refers to communication about the natural environment and ecosystem, commonly focusing on the relationships that human beings and their institutions have with the nonhuman natural environment. Much of this communication, historically, has been generated by concern about various environmental problems and issues (global warming, energy, smog, extinction of species, land uses, population growth
The term organizational communication denotes both a field of study and a set of empirical phenomena. The former is a largely US-based subdiscipline of the field of communication studies (though programs are being established in New Zealand, Australia, Japan, South Korea, Europe, and China); the latter refers broadly to the various and complex communication practices
The media law regimes in Africa are the result of a confluence of historical and political factors: first, the authoritarian colonial systems inherited at independence; second, international communication policy transfers from the UN and its specialized agencies; and third, the post-Cold War liberalization of the 1990s. The 53 countries on the African continent can be
In most of Latin America, subaltern populations are those whose primary origins are indigenous, including lower-class mestizo people (i.e., people of mixed origins – indigenous with European) and the urban poor of predominantly indigenous background. Internal migration, urbanization, and modernization are three elements that have influenced transformations in popular communication. For instance, in Peru, television
The phrase “communication and law” is used in this article to refer broadly to the general field of speech and press law. It is also used to denote multidisciplinary research done at the intersection of two distinctly separate disciplines of study (communication and law). The study of communication and law has traditionally been nation-specific, with
22 countries belong to the Arab League, established in 1945. Most of those countries were ruled by the Ottomans, British, French, or Italians. Thus, Arab countries have largely adopted legislation based mostly on the legal systems of their former colonial rulers. Egypt, however, has a longer and more established legal tradition that dates back to
North America consists of 23 countries, including the United States, Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean Island nations, and Central America. The continent also encompasses several territories and possessions such as Greenland. The United States dominates the region, especially in the area of communication law and policy, with Canada next in line. Except for Cuba, all of
South America comprises 13 countries with a vast array of cultural backgrounds. Its cultural diversity stems from Spanish, French, Dutch, Portuguese, and a myriad of indigenous languages, which is reflected in South American communication law and policy. Néstor García Canclini (2005) has called South American culture a hybrid variety of influence and patterns. Citizens’ liberty
The first newspapers were published in Europe in 1605: Nieuwe Tijdinghen in Antwerp and Relation in Strasbourg, both published as weeklies. Soon afterwards, more newspapers appeared in several European cities, until in 1650 the first daily newspaper was printed in Leipzig, Germany. Censorship and license were the key legal restraints on newspapers under the absolute
Communication law and policy in Asia covers a spectrum of issues involving widely varying political, cultural, and legal contexts across dozens of countries in the world’s largest and most populous continent. While it can be difficult to generalize legal trends in the region because of a lack of conformity of interests and laws, or of
During the Industrial Revolution, the English word “class” morphed from a general term for a division or group to a specific term for a position of rank within a social system based on economic wealth. Around the same time, the word “popular” began to be applied to communication and culture with meanings ranging from “liked
The community of East Asian communication researchers has been growing rapidly in recent years, which shows that communication studies in East Asia has reached a certain level of maturity (Miike & Chen 2006). In the United States the academic study of communication began after World War I. In East Asian culture, however, the academic study
The communication discipline in Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, and Hong Kong is strong and diverse. Although regional research clearly emerged from a strong US and British tradition, it has matured. This maturity is evident not only in the region’s contribution to evolving communication research, but also in identifying and analyzing significant trends as the region’s
Present-day communication education in Africa has not been able to build on a rich tradition of a longstanding university system. Widespread university education in Africa is a postcolonial phenomenon, with North Africa and South Africa being the main exceptions. Like other academic disciplines, communication studies suffers much of this postcolonial legacy, be it the effect
Applied communication research refers to a type of communication scholarship as well as to a sub-field of communication with which that research is identified. In the more specific sense, applied communication research is communication scholarship that emphasizes the creation of knowledge about communication in specific contexts, applicable to social issues, and often for the solution
The International Communication Association (ICA) began more than 50 years ago as a small association of US researchers and is now a truly international association with more than 4,000 members in 76 countries. With its headquarters in Washington, DC, the ICA publishes four refereed journals (a fifth will begin in 2008), a yearbook, and a
Communication research is intimately related to politics, especially if politics is understood widely as the deliberate management of society. Research on media and other aspects of communication such as election campaigns has typically been inspired and financed by political motives. On the other hand, research has influenced politics by producing concepts and findings about how
Despite a common interest in communicative activity, mass communication professionals and communication scholars have long been at odds with each other. Scholars argue that media performance can only be enhanced by professionalization of the workforce and the self-knowledge generated from systematic, criteria-based analysis and assessment. They have also systematically criticized a great deal of mass
The South Asian region comprises Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, the Maldives, and Sri Lanka. Given the relatively undeveloped nature of communication as an academic discipline in most of South Asia with the exception of India, the major focus of this article will be on the scenario in India. Phase 1: 1940 –1989 Communication as
The institutionalization of communication as an academic field in Israel began with the establishment of the Communication Institute of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. From 1966 when founded by Elihu Katz, and through the 1990s, the Communication Institute acted as a sole academic authority, a conceptual model, and a source of faculty recruitment for communication
The history of communication as an academic field of study in the Arab world goes back to 1939 when the Higher Journalism Institute (HJI) was established within the College of Arts at Cairo University (Cairo University 2004). By the early 1970s, Egypt and Iraq (Baghdad University) were the only countries in the Arab region to
There is general agreement that the communication discipline, as we know it today, began in the USA. There is, however, a degree of disagreement as to how to trace the origins of the discipline. Arguably, the organizational roots of the communication discipline could be divided into two traditions: the “speech” tradition and the “journalism” tradition.
Communication as an academic field of research in Western Europe scarcely predates World War II and, with minor exceptions, did not develop as a full program of study until the last quarter of the twentieth century. The main exception was Germany, where a press science (Zeitungswissenschaft) was quite well established in some German universities before
The international history of communication and media studies has yet to be written. To this point, most histories have been national, with the bulk of attention devoted to North America and western Europe. These emphases are not unwarranted, for the field established itself first on either side of the North Atlantic, was disseminated outward from
Communication and media studies matured into an integrated discipline in the years following 1968. Research and education became centralized in independent schools of communication, while at the same time drawing from related disciplines to improve methodology and explore new paradigms. By the early 1960s, communication studies began to move out of departments of sociology, psychology
In Latin America communication studies started during the late 1960s, and were characterized by two very different conceptions. On the one hand, there was the functional paradigm, from the United States (where many Latin American professors had been trained), which related the study of communication to the diffusion of innovations, and which was part of
Media communication, mass communication, political communication, and other aspects of social communication represent a dynamic academic field in contemporary central and Eastern Europe and Russia. In particular, communication on the societal level, which was the subject of the most visible and remarkable changes during the 1990s (reintroduction of “free” media and deep structural change of
Strategic communication is the study of how organizations or communicative entities communicate deliberately to reach set goals. Although the term “strategic communication” has been in use for years, scholars are only now fully engaged in defining the field and its theoretical influences. Traditionally communication in its organizational context has been studied through various disciplines academically
As users we will come to rely on our handset as a single device to manage not just communications but much of our lives. It will truly become a “remote control for life,” with massively enhanced capabilities, advanced methods of user interaction and in-built tools . . . The substantial change that end users are
The study of visual communication comprises such wide-reaching and voluminous literatures as art history, the philosophy of art and aesthetics, semiotics, cinema studies, television and mass media studies, the history and theory of photography, the history and theory of graphic design and typography, the study of word–image relationships in literary, aesthetic, and rhetorical theory, the
Communication is considered to be political if it relates to the exchange of messages among political actors. For example, most of what politicians do is political communication. Likewise, citizens communicate politics when they discuss political issues with friends or family members, phone in to political radio talks shows, or participate in political chats on the
Looking at political communication phenomena in a systems framework is a common approach in this field of study. The term “system,” in its general meaning, denotes a multitude of component parts, depending on each other, and functioning as a whole. The nature of the political communication system is thought of as a structure of producing
The definition of “international communication” is constantly in flux. Whether we have in view sociologist Émile Durkheim’s suggestion in his classic work Elementary forms of religious life (1917) that relations between different Aboriginal tribes constituted international communication, or historians’ and political scientists’ studies of diplomacy among modern nation-states, or the rush of contemporary theorizing on
Interpersonal communication concerns the study of social interaction between people. Interpersonal communication theory and research seeks to understand how individuals use verbal discourse and nonverbal actions, as well as written discourse, to achieve a variety of instrumental and communication goals such as informing, persuading, and providing emotional support to others. Although interpersonal communication has been
Because investigations of organizational communication involve the intersection of two complex concepts – organization and communication – the discipline of organizational communication involves a number of diverse topical interests. Most scholars would agree that “organizations” are social collectives, embedded in a larger environment, in which activities are coordinated to achieve individual and collective goals. The
Political communication relates to the exchange of messages among political actors. For example, most of what politicians do is political communication. Likewise, citizens communicate politics when they discuss political issues with friends or family members, phone in to political radio talks shows, or participate in political chats on the Internet. Demonstrations and other forms of
Popular communication is an interdisciplinary, multi-theoretical, multi-methodological philosophy of media and audiences. It has evolved as a nonhierarchical perspective that emphasizes the value of objects, behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs associated with everyday life. Gunn and Brummett (2004, 705) ask provocative questions about popular communication that capture the difficulty of defining the term: “Whose child is
Definitions and Concepts The Latin root of “communication” – communicare – means “to share” or “to be in relation with.” Through Indo-European etymological roots, it further relates to the words “common,” “commune,” and “community,” suggesting an act of “bringing together”. The notion of communication has been present and debated in the west from pre-Socratic times.
The field of communication is highly diverse in methods, theories, and objects of study. What, if anything, unites the field as a coherent entity? What warrants bringing together such an apparently eclectic group of topics and approaches in a single reference work? Presumably, the common focus is on “communication.” But what is the nature of
Development communication refers to a process of strategic intervention toward social change, initiated and engaged by organizations and communities. Development itself encompasses participatory and intentional strategies designed to benefit the public good, whether in terms of material, political, or social needs. While the more broadly defined field of development communication incorporates mediated as well as
In the last two decades of the twentieth century, communication scholars began to adopt a perspective that recognizes the dynamic and evolving nature of behavior. Termed “developmental” or “life-span” communication, this approach mirrors its sister disciplines, psychology and sociology, in the study of change across time. Communication scholars became interested in this perspective after the
Educational communication is an umbrella term that encompasses all speaking, listening, and relational constructs and concepts that relate to learning. In the past, researchers have been interested in characteristics of teachers that enhance or hinder learning; student characteristics that increase or inhibit learning; teaching strategies that augment learning; how best to give criticism of student
“Exposure to communication content” describes one of the most recent areas of specialization within the communication discipline. It is located at the intersection of media effects research and audience research, two academic traditions that have remained relatively separate. Over the past half a century, the well-established tradition of media effects research has revealed a rather
Health communication is the study and application of the generation, creation, and dissemination of health-related information, health-related interactions among individual social actors and institutions, and their effects on different publics including individuals, community groups, and institutions. The challenges inherent in disease prevention and health promotion warrant a multidisciplinary and multilevel approach that examines the role
Formal organizational communication is not an easily defined term. Organizational communication is a complicated phenomenon that has no clear boundaries. Several definitions attempt to conceptualize the abstract nature of organizational communication. The study of organizational communication involves the intersection of two complex and dynamic concepts: organizations and communications. An organization has three primary characteristics: Social
Some scholars argue that the informal organization is more powerful than the formal organization. Scholars also suggest that a great deal of communication in organizations is informal communication. Elton Mayo and his famous Hawthorne studies found that informal communication influenced the development and reinforcement of performance standards, member expectations, and values at the work group
Effective communication between dentists and patients is a pivotal aspect of healthcare, profoundly influencing overall health outcomes. This article explores the intricate dynamics of dentist-patient communication, emphasizing the significance of non-verbal cues, empathetic relationships, and patient-friendly language. Key communication strategies for dentists, including active listening, clear communication, and trust-building, are dissected to underscore their role
Cross-cultural communication refers to the exchange of information between people of different cultural backgrounds. It is a well-studied field of research in several disciplines, including psychology, speech and communication, sociology, anthropology, and business. Cross-cultural communication is highly related to a similar term, intercultural communication. In actuality, there is no difference between these terms in the
Interpersonal communication is a dynamic and complex human phenomenon that includes at least two communicators. These communicators intentionally orient toward each other as both subject and object whose actions embody each other’s perspectives both toward self and toward other. In essence, interpersonal communication is a goal-driven interaction between at least two people that typically occurs
Interpersonal communication style is the manner in which one communicates. It includes the way one interacts to create expectations for future behavior on the part of both participants. Communication is the transmission of information and meaning from one individual to another. The communication process, whether verbal or nonverbal, involves a sender and a receiver. Whether
Communication is difficult to define as it can be understood from a variety of perspectives. Dominic Infante, Andrew Rancer, and Deanna Womack suggest that communication occurs between humans when the meaning of symbols is manipulated to stimulate meaning. From this perspective, communication is important for promoting cooperation. Humans are social in nature and require cooperation
Facilitated Communication (FC) has been a subject of both fervent advocacy and intense scrutiny in the realm of school psychology. This article provides a comprehensive examination of FC, offering insights into its historical development, controversies, and contemporary practices. The article explores the concept’s definition, the roles of facilitators and communicators, and the ethical, legal, and
Communication disorders, encompassing various speech, language, and social communication impairments, present a critical concern in the field of school psychology. This article offers a comprehensive examination of these disorders, their classification, etiological factors, assessment methods, and intervention strategies. It explores the impact of communication disorders on the educational and emotional well-being of affected individuals and
Anthropologist Edward T. Hall introduced the construct of high-context (HC) communication to describe the degree to which people rely on contextual factors rather than the explicit and transmitted part of the message to derive meaning in communication. In HC communication, people derive meaning from mutually shared information of the context that is associated with a
Anthropologist Edward T. Hall introduced the construct of low-context communication to describe the degree to which people rely on contextual factors rather than the explicit and transmitted part of the message to derive meaning in communication. In low-context (LC) communication, people attend to the explicit, communicated speech to gather information. LC communicators place less emphasis
Communication is commonly defined as a transmission of thoughts, feelings, information, knowledge, and ideas by means of written or verbal messages. However, when people communicate face-to-face, they position their bodies in a certain way, vary their stance, control their eye gaze, and move their hands in particular manners. Therefore, there is an additional set of
This article explores the intricate landscape of communication challenges encountered by individuals facing chronic illness, emphasizing the multifaceted nature of barriers across physical, emotional, and cognitive domains. Delving into the interpersonal realm, it scrutinizes the dynamics between healthcare providers and patients, shedding light on power differentials, patient empowerment, and the pivotal role of clear communication
This article explores the role of effective communication in mental health care within the framework of health psychology. Recognizing communication as a cornerstone of therapeutic relationships, the article delves into the nuanced dynamics of verbal and non-verbal cues specific to the mental health care context. It meticulously examines barriers that impede communication, such as stigma
This article explores the pivotal role of communication in preventing sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) within the framework of health psychology. Beginning with an introduction delineating the significance of STD prevention, the narrative explores the theoretical foundations of health communication, employing models such as the Health Belief Model, Social Cognitive Theory, and Theory of Planned Behavior.
This article explores the pivotal role of communication strategies in health psychology to promote timely treatment. The introduction underscores the significance of timely treatment in health outcomes, emphasizing the essential connection between effective communication and successful healthcare interventions. The first section explores verbal communication, elucidating the importance of clear instructions, empathetic dialogue, and active listening
This article explores the role of effective communication skills in healthcare within the realm of health psychology. Grounded in various communication models and theories, the first section elucidates the theoretical foundations underpinning communication in healthcare, including insights from Social Cognitive Theory, the Health Belief Model, and the Patient-Centered Communication Model. The second section delves into
This article explores the multifaceted landscape of risk communication within health settings, employing a rigorous examination of theoretical foundations, communication channels, and ethical considerations. The introduction defines risk communication and underscores its paramount importance in the realm of health psychology. The first section delves into foundational theoretical frameworks such as the Health Belief Model, Social
This article explores the pivotal role of communication in health psychology and its profound impact on patient outcomes. Beginning with an introduction to health psychology and the imperative of effective communication in healthcare, the article delves into the theoretical frameworks underpinning health communication, emphasizing the Health Belief Model and Social Cognitive Theory. The first section