During the latter half of the twentieth century, most discussions about international television tended to focus on national media systems and relations of exchange among those systems. Since the 1990s, however, television has increasingly been studied as a global phenomenon. Although national systems still figure prominently, research and policy debates now explore the ways in
Med TV, the first Kurdish satellite TV channel, began its standard broadcasts in May 1995 from its head office in London and its main studios near Brussels. It was created by people close to the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), which had been conducting an armed struggle against the Turkish state since 1984. On the one
Media flows between countries have always been controversial. Fears of cultural consequences if imbalances occur and concerns about the symbolic value of cultural and media products have historically been at the heart of academic and political debates as well as public policies from governments. These dimensions of culture and media have generated great numbers of
Several emerging and existing international communication agencies spearhead the governance of the global media and communications environment. International communication agencies have both specialized and collective responsibilities to advance multilateral and multi-stakeholder cooperation and collaboration on the broad issues of global media governance, including the development of regulation instruments and guidelines for intellectual property, media concentration
International news reporting evolved with the advent of the telegraph in the mid-1800s. The explosion of foreign news that followed largely supported the colonial empires; it also focused on international conflicts involving them (while all but ignoring others). The concept of international reporting is itself contentious, beginning with the definition of “news.” Galtung and Ruge
Since radio broadcasting was launched shortly after World War I, it has served two culturally different, almost paradoxical, functions in relation to its distribution. On the one hand, it turned out to be one of the more effective instruments in the nation-building process, and on the other it was from its initial years distributed on
The first 25 years of Internet governance began with technicians at the helm. The 1990s saw an emerging struggle over the US government’s escalating attempts to dominate the Internet. Initial opposition came from the Internet’s technical community, but later a number of national governments also began to challenge the US strategy. The European Union (EU)
Most employees used to have chiefly domestic careers in which, in the main, they did not carry out international, across-country work. The exceptions were the small number of employees, or “expatriates,” deployed by their organizations on assignments abroad. By contrast, many employees now carry out international work in their jobs, and their careers are more
When the United States decided to reverse the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, it did not act unilaterally. It turned to the United Nations Security Council. When the Security Council sought to learn the extent of chemical, biological, and nuclear arms in Iraq, it did not rely on U.S. forces. It dispatched inspectors from the International
Mass media content is created for audience consumption. Without at least a small audience, the communication process remains unilateral and incomplete. Despite its relevance for media production, regulation, and marketing, data on media use is systematically collected only in a few (mostly western) countries of the world. Hence the international comparison of media use patterns
With increasing globalization, countries have opened up their borders to trade in goods and services, often including health services. This has given rise to heated debates in the media and the academic and professional literature, with proponents arguing that it can improve efficiency and facilitate the sharing of ideas, although opponents argue that international trade
There has been considerable debate in recent years regarding globalization of health services and its implications for exporting and importing economies. This debate has been sparked by the growing scope for cross border delivery of health services due to advances in information and communication technology, growing mobility of healthcare providers and patients, and commercialization of
The first section of this article reviews the risks associated with cross-border trade as well as legal consequences of trade treaties, focusing on World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements. It also discusses three features of the WTO agreements, which provide space for addressing the tensions between the economic objectives of trade policy and public health objectives.
The international migration of skilled health workers (SHWs) has grown rapidly since the 1970s, become more complex, more global, and of concern to countries that lose workers from fragile health systems. As health care has become more commercialized, so too has migration, as part of a wider globalization of health services. Few parts of the
The International Communication Association (ICA) began more than 50 years ago as a small association of US researchers and is now a truly international association with more than 4,000 members in 76 countries. With its headquarters in Washington, DC, the ICA publishes four refereed journals (a fifth will begin in 2008), a yearbook, and a
The International Association for Media and Communication Research (IAMCR) is an international professional organization in the field of media and communication research. Its aims are to promote global inclusiveness and excellence in research, to stimulate interest in media and communication research, to disseminate information about research results, and to provide a forum where researchers can
The definition of “international communication” is constantly in flux. Whether we have in view sociologist Émile Durkheim’s suggestion in his classic work Elementary forms of religious life (1917) that relations between different Aboriginal tribes constituted international communication, or historians’ and political scientists’ studies of diplomacy among modern nation-states, or the rush of contemporary theorizing on
Historically, interest in international psychology dates back to professional affiliations created in Paris over a century ago at the First International Congress of Psychology. Since then, a variety of organizations continue to support the professional interests of psychology worldwide (e.g., the American Psychological Association’s [APA’s] Division 17— International Special Interests Group, and Division 52—International Psychology).
Clearly, the world is rapidly changing and becoming a global village with increased interdependence, communication, travel, migration, and trade between countries. This entry summarizes the international developments in counseling psychology in the United States and worldwide. In the United States The U.S. counseling profession has a long and distinguished history, evolving from the vocational guidance
Test use is an international enterprise. Tests are used widely in education, industry, government—including the military—and in other institutions to assist in decision making. The International Test Commission (ITC) was established in 1976 to address three test-related issues at an international level: test purchase by unauthorized persons, the questionable quality of some tests, and the