Public service broadcasting (PSB), according to McQuail (2005, 179), refers to “a system that is set up by law and generally financed by public funds (often a compulsory license fee paid by households) and given a large degree of editorial and operating independence.” Public service broadcasting is supposed to function independently of both the market
Public broadcasting is notoriously difficult to define, and yet it has been at the center of debates in media policy for decades in those countries where it exists. Proponents of public broadcasting argue that at its heart is the notion of providing the “best” in programming for all, while detractors would argue that it is
The idea of public goods has been subject to considerable debate and contestation. The term is generally used to classify products or services that are not diminished through usage and for which charges cannot be levied on individual consumption (e.g., street lighting). The concept of public goods is significant for media and communication scholars because
A public meeting is a gathering in which there are limited, if any, restrictions on who may participate. Public meetings, as an ideal, are a form of democracy, but in fact are often viewed as frustrating and futile. Researchers have studied issues and topics related to public meetings (e.g., leadership, public participation); there is now
After World War II, a spurt in the growth of multinational companies and worldwide trade led to the concomitant growth of global advertising and marketing agencies and networks around the world. Such growth was the inevitable outcome of the need to coordinate the advertising and marketing of goods and services in the various markets that
Public Relations Careers Background The origins of public relations date back to early Greece, when Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle developed rules of rhetoric that made arguments more effective. Their methods were used in jury trials, ethics instruction, and other situations in which reason guided the discussion. In the late 19th century, newspapers decided to encourage
Public Safety Careers Background Virtually every aspect of life involves policies, regulations, and laws that help to promote public safety. The exterior of a house meets certain codes, or rules, so that it won’t catch on fire easily. Every time you drive a car, you follow a number of rules so that you won’t cause
The history of federal land in the United States can be divided into five major eras, some of which overlap one another: acquisition, from 1781, when the land claims of the original states were first ceded to the central government, until the purchase of Alaska in 1867; disposal, from about 1810 until about 1934, when
Few concepts in the social sciences have attracted more attention and caused more confusion than the concept of the “public.” The dispute concerning the nature of the public is at least as old as Greek democracy. Since that time, one of the most divisive questions has been whether the public is characterized by an everyman
You probably spend much of every day complaining about things you do not like about school such as unfair grading practices, broken lockers, or gum under the desks. Although some students will just complain, others will try to change these troubling issues. Perhaps you are prepared to speak to the principal, write to school board
Many public health interventions are extremely good value for money. Advice from doctors to give up smoking, vaccinations against communicable diseases, or improved access to clean water in low-income countries are often relatively low cost interventions that produce substantial health gains. Where evidence on cost-effectiveness is available, many preventive and public health interventions fare very
This article addresses the distinctive challenges of planning, financing, implementing, and evaluating public health policies in low- and middle-income countries. By public health is meant the science and art of promoting and protecting health and well-being, preventing ill-health and prolonging life through the organized efforts of society. A key feature of low and middle-income countries
The origins of public health can be found in ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Many of the prominent themes in the writings of that era, such as Airs, Waters, and Places from the Hippocratic corpus, have echoes in today’s major concerns about how one can have health amid both climate change and an increasing burden
The term “public opinion polling” generally refers collectively to both the representative survey method and to the institutes that specialize in employing this method, particularly to commercial survey institutes. Other terms commonly employed in this context are: “public opinion research,” “survey research”, or simply, if somewhat confusingly, “public opinion.” The term “demoscopy” (Greek: “observation of
Public relations (PR) specialists develop and maintain programs that present a favorable public image for an individual or organization. They provide information to the target audience (generally, the public at large) about the client, its goals and accomplishments, and any further plans or projects that may be of public interest. PR specialists may be employed
Public opinion researchers help measure public sentiment about various products, services, or social issues by gathering information from a sample of the population through questionnaires and interviews. They collect, analyze, and interpret data and opinions to explore issues and forecast trends. Their poll results help business people, politicians, and other decision makers determine what’s on
Public transportation operators include drivers of school buses, intercity buses, local commuter buses, and local transit railway systems, such as subways and streetcars. Many drivers run a predetermined route within a city or metropolitan area, transporting passengers from one designated place to another. Intercity drivers travel between cities and states, transporting passengers and luggage on
Public service broadcasting (PSB) is funded by the public, and regulated to ensure that it serves the public interest. Public service broadcasters (PSBs) should be distinguished from state broadcasters, which function mainly to serve the interests of the government, and purely commercial broadcasters, which respond primarily to individual consumer choices rather than to any notion
Public access television – also known as community television or open channels – is a form of television in which citizens produce programs and bypass corporations, governments, journalists, and other gatekeepers to transmit their programs directly to audiences. Proponents of public access television promote it as a remedy to commercialism, centralization, and lack of diversity
Systems theory reveals that organizations are integrated into their social environment by means of a network of relationships. In part, this rationale of organizational success motivated Harlow, who used the term “public relations” (PR) to describe the field of “all types of relations an organization has with its publics” (1957, xi). Systems theory and relationship
Although public relations practice is slightly ahead of the public relations body of knowledge, both have developed ethnocentrically in the twentieth century, based predominantly on experience and research from the United States and to a lesser extent from some countries in Europe (Sriramesh & Vercic 2003; Van Ruler & Vercic 2004). However, public relations practice
Earning public understanding and acceptance through reports in the press is one of the oldest means–ends schemes in public relations (PR). Firms, governments, NGOs, and interest groups alike use the media to convey their message to their publics. Hence, media influence is a two-step process. Whether PR efforts lead to news items in the media
The 1952 edition of Effective Public Relations: Pathway to Public Favor (Cutlip & Center) set the standard for PR education for decades to come. Chapters 5–7 introduced planning as the second of a three-stage process model. The first step was fact-finding, the second planning, and the third communicating. By 1958, the authors had moved evaluation
Organizational roles are abstract maps summarizing the most salient features of the daily activities of organizational members. Katz & Kahn (1978) considered roles central to the structure of organizations; organizations can be regarded as open systems of interrelated roles. Roles are defined as “recurring actions of an individual, appropriately interrelated with the repetitive activities of
The term “professionalization” refers to the way in which occupations become recognized as professions, usually explained by a range of factors related to the improvement of services offered and status enjoyed. The precise meaning of the term depends on the approach taken to defining the concept of “profession.” Three theoretical perspectives are in evidence in
Public affairs is both a generic term for the trends and conditions that define and result from socio-economic–socio-political trends, and the corporate management function that works to position each organization comfortably and cooperatively in its nonmarketplace context. Focusing on the latter meaning, Madden (2005, 665) defined public affairs as “the management function responsible for interpreting
A core responsibility of communicators in public relations is to manage issues. Public relations holds the substantial moral responsibility of defining issues, communicating about those issues with publics and the media, and working to prevent and resolve problems between organizations and publics. This weighty responsibility includes deciding what concepts are related or unrelated to an
The notion of public diplomacy has been used in international relations and in international communication studies since about the mid-1960s. It originates from US foreign policy from the period of the Cold War. Public diplomacy is understood as a dialogical communication between governments and other actors on the stage of international relations via the mass
Evaluation is a management tool that allows the user to establish whether a project or campaign has had its intended effect. Effective evaluation is at the center of any public relations effort and should be a basic element of any planned public relations action. In reality, however, evaluation is often overlooked or not undertaken for
Consensus-oriented public relations (COPR) is a concept for planning and evaluating public relations (PR). Especially in situations with a high chance of conflict, companies and organizations are forced to present good arguments for communicating their interests and ideas – in other words, they must make the public understand their actions. Therefore, in the viewpoint of
Thomas Jefferson, quoted in Fischer’s Citizens, Experts, and the Environment (2001), said that wherever the people are well informed, they can be trusted with their own government. But, nowadays, who can claim to be well informed enough about science to govern it except the scientists themselves? In 1959, Sir Charles Snow put forward the thesis
Bearing the dubious distinction of being one of the oldest, yet least understood, concepts in social science, public opinion continues to inspire and perplex scholars from communication and other fields. The term can be adequately defined as a general measure of the directionality and strength of issue-specific views and sentiments held by a relevant group.
The public sphere is an indispensable element of a democratic society and the institutional core of democratic decision-making. Every democratic political order is essentially based on the idea that citizens participate in collectively binding decisions, articulate their interests and opinions openly, listen and evaluate the opinions and arguments of others, and, on that basis, make
The public sphere is defined as a network of all the communicative spaces within which public affairs are debated and a public opinion is formed. Such an infrastructure of political communication is crucial for democratic self-government and the social integration of modern society. Both functions seem to be threatened if the public sphere decays into
As mass media play an increasing role in our societies by providing an arena of public debate and making politicians, policies, and relevant facts widely known, they are expected to follow certain rules of conduct. These rules and the normative media theories they draw upon typically imply presumptions as to the public interest the media
However old the practice of public relations is (Heath 2005a), in the identity we know today it became a serious professional practice in the latter part of the nineteenth century in the USA and in other democratized parts of the world, especially in Europe. Its emergence paralleled the development of mass production society, as a
Law, Public Safety, and Security Career Cluster You’ve probably seen people who drive as if there were no speed limits or stop signs. They zoom down the road, oblivious of others and hoping for the best. What if there really were no traffic laws like stopping at stop signs or driving slower on a curvy
/ Public Health Leadership Leadership is the process through which an individual tries to influence another individual or a group of individuals to accomplish a goal. Leadership is valued in our culture, especially when it helps to achieve goals that are beneficial to the population, such as the enactment of effective preventive health policies. An
Public health nursing is a specialized form of registered nursing that combines nursing and public health principles. According to the American Public Health Association, the primary focus of public health nursing is improving the health of the community as a whole rather than just that of an individual or family. Public health nursing is sometimes
The study of public opinion about the courts is closely tied to concerns that date back to the Constitutional Convention. Then, and subsequently, it has been noted that while the executive branch has the power of the sword and the legislative branch the power of the purse, for compliance with its orders, the judiciary uniquely
Hundreds of research studies that have examined a wide range of topics on public opinion about crime support the conclusion that citizens generally are not well-informed about this issue. For example, the public perceived that crime rates for several different types of crime were increasing during times when in fact those crime rates were decreasing or
The public is routinely informed that suspects have been administered a polygraph test and have either failed or passed the test. In some cases, this information is provided during the trial. Consequently, how the public judges the polygraph test is of interest to those in the legal community. A number of studies have addressed how
Public Goods Dilemma Definition Public goods dilemma refers to a real-world decision whereby the outcome for any individual depends on the decisions of all involved parties. More specifically, these dilemmas are decisions in which individuals must weigh personal interests against the collective interest, which is typically a communal resource, a public good. Examples of Public
This article explores the imperative of adopting public health approaches to address the multifaceted challenge of addiction. Beginning with an examination of the epidemiology of addiction, the first section delves into prevalence rates, risk and protective factors, and the broad impact of addiction on public health. Subsequently, the article navigates through prominent public health models
This article explores the effectiveness of public health policies in preventing smoking, emphasizing their impact on behavior guided by health psychology theories. Beginning with an overview of the theoretical frameworks informing smoking prevention, the discussion delves into specific policies, such as taxation, advertising regulations, and smoke-free laws. A critical analysis of these policies considers their
This article delves into the interplay between public health campaigns and behavior change within the realm of health psychology. The introduction establishes a foundational understanding of public health campaigns, highlighting their significance in fostering behavior change for improved population health. The first section explores key theoretical frameworks such as Social Cognitive Theory, Health Belief Model
This article on evaluating public health programs offers an in-depth exploration of the theoretical foundations, methodologies, and key metrics essential for assessing the effectiveness of public health interventions. The introduction delineates the significance of program evaluation within the realm of public health, emphasizing the imperative role it plays in informing evidence-based practices. The first section