The term “social perception” might seem a misnomer, as it refers less to how people perceive their social environment through their senses than to how they make a judgment. Unlike the color of a car or the loudness of a piece of music, both of which can be more or less directly perceived by the
According to the impersonal impact hypothesis, the mass media influence individuals’ perceptions of risk to others (societal-level risk), but not perceptions of risk to themselves (personal risk). Implicit in this hypothesis is the notion that individuals can compartmentalize various perceptions of risk, differentiating between societal-level judgments, or beliefs about the larger community with respect to
Unrealistic optimism, suggested by LeJeune and Alex in 1973, was described as the “illusion of unique invulnerability.” It was further developed by Weinstein (1980) in an article on individual perceptions of future life events. This illusion refers to an individual’s tendency to believe oneself invulnerable or at very low risk of suffering misfortune and victimization.
The introduction of radio broadcasting during the 1920s released a tide of social changes, which have profoundly affected every society in the world, changes that have subsequently been amplified by television and information and communication technology. By the end of the twentieth century these electronic media had become so embedded in social, political, and economic
Television history has developed relatively recently. After pioneering work in the UK (Briggs 1961–1995) and the US (Barnouw 1976), national histories of television (and broadcasting) have been written, mostly in Europe and sometimes beyond (bibliographies can be found at André Lange’s history of television website). Historians have focused mostly on political and institutional history. Television
Human relations may be considered as patterned interactions over time. Thus, temporal change and continuity are constant and fundamental features of the human condition. In this perspective, the typical usage of the social change concept—as only applying when a “normal” state of affairs is radically and rapidly altered—involves several flawed assumptions, including the idea that
Social structure has been used in anthropology as the descriptor for a variety of conceptualizations of human organization. The term, wrote Claude Lévi-Strauss, “has nothing to do with empirical reality but with models which are built up after it.” The building up of such models was a central preoccupation in anthropology in the mid-20th century.
Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) is a relatively new theory that is aimed at explaining three interrelated aspects of career development: (1) how basic academic and career interests develop, (2) how educational and career choices are made, and (3) how academic and career success is obtained. The theory incorporates a variety of concepts (e.g., interests
Social judgment theory (SJT; Sherif & Hovland 1961; Sherif et al. 1965) is based on the premise that the effect of a persuasive message on a particular issue depends on the way that the receiver evaluates the position that the message puts forth (O’Keefe 1990). Sherif et al. (1965) claimed that an individual’s attitude toward
Social constructionism is a postmodern perspective that emphasizes the socially constructed nature of knowledge. Underscoring the linguistic and relational nature of all knowledge, it emphasizes personal, social, and cultural processes that inform, and limit, the development of knowledge. In contrast to modernist notions of reality as singular, stable, universal, and nonhistorical, social constructionists emphasize that
Social psychology is conventionally defined as the scientific study of how the actual or imagined presence of others influences an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior. The social psychology of language (SPL) concentrates on the role of language in the dynamics between individuals and their social world; language use is argued to affect and be affected
Human survival is based on the ability to exchange resources, and as a result of evolution, the human brain has adapted so as to facilitate exchange (Cosmides & Tooby 2005). Communication is a tool by which individuals can negotiate an exchange as well as provide resources (Roloff 1981). Appropriately, communication scholars have used social exchange
How someone behaves verbally, physically, or through their presence in a social context influences the behavior of other people in that context. This is a logical and practical assumption about any form of shared human activity. The variety of ways that behavior takes shape and is repeated over time and situations is referred to as
Social support is a diverse, multidisciplinary area of study that addresses the question: why do people who are involved in relationships tend to be mentally and physically healthier than those who are not? One approach to answering this question focuses on what people say and do to help one another cope with stress (enacted support
Mediated social interaction refers to the interaction between two or more individuals, normally separated in time and/or space, enabled by various communication technologies. Mediated social interaction may take many different forms, depending on how many people are involved in message construction and reception (e.g., one-to-one vs one-tomany); whether participating individuals are required to be present
A goal-oriented perspective on communication entails the assumption that social interaction is an instrument for achieving objectives. Communication is the means by which something gets done. Goals have several features. They vary in their level of abstraction. For example, a person who is seen typing at a computer may be writing a research paper, attempting
An inclusive understanding of the concept views social capital as the potential resources derived from an individual’s social relationships as well as valued resources available from the organization of that social network of relationships. Individuals or groups exchange social capital to gain access to needed resources from others in the social system or to enhance
People work at an incredibly wide number of jobs. A major question is How can we explain how people find their way into working at one occupation rather than another? The social learning theory of career development (SLTCD) is one of a number of theories that help explain how individuals make occupational choices. The SLTCD
Every face-to-face interaction occurs in a specific location. Although it is typically assumed that the course of particular interactions is a product of the individuals involved and their relationships to one another, the surrounding environment has important effects at both the macroand micro-levels. Where people live has an important effect on social behavior. For example
Transnational social movements engage in communication processes as well as the creation of media products in their strategic work toward social change. Media attention to these efforts as well becomes part of the ongoing struggle to promote social justice, political opportunities, and economic equality. The bridging of social movement interests across national boundaries signals the
The journalist Walter Lippmann introduced the notion of stereotypes in 1922 and described them as “pictures in our heads”. Current psychological theory conceptualizes those “pictures” as cognitive structures or schemas that represent widely shared beliefs about the defining characteristics of social groups (Operario & Fiske 2004). Any group might be subject to stereotypes, but the
The concept of social capital dates back more than 100 years and has intrigued academics, policymakers, and activists interested in understanding intergroup relations and social change in a variety of fields including communication, public health, sociology, and political science (Portes 1998). It has been seen as a promising way to examine how interaction and association
Interest in social support as an important determinant of people’s health stemmed from a number of influential papers published in the 1970s (e.g., Cobb 1976). These early writings suggested that people’s interpersonal relationships with members of their social network can reduce the negative impact of stress on their health. The specific mechanisms by which these
Social Sciences Careers Background Have you ever wondered what future generations will make of our culture? What do you think they’ll dig up on the archaeological digs of tomorrow? Old Beanie Babies? iMac computers? Volkswagen beetles? If you’ve got a bit of the social scientist in you, you may be intrigued by the bit of
Social Services Careers Background In the earliest civilizations, those in need were faced with prejudice and discrimination. Ancient civilizations believed that people with mental disorders were being penalized by the gods and punished or banished them from society. It wasn’t until 1597 that the Poor Laws were established in England to handle the needs of
The concept of social capital has been widely used in educational research. However, researchers have yet to come to an agreement over what constitutes social capital and what its effects are on educational and other social outcomes. There are at least two distinct theories of social capital commonly used by educational researchers. The first, by
Theories of human behavior differ in their conceptions of human nature and what they regard as the basic determinants and mechanisms governing self-development, adaptation, and change. Social cognitive theory is rooted in an agentic perspective. To be an agent is to influence one’s own functioning and events that affect one’s life. In this view people
The central idea of social comparison theory is that individuals often assess how well they are doing by comparing themselves with others around them. When Festinger (1954) originally developed the theory, he argued that individuals want an accurate assessment of their opinions and performance, and that in the absence of objective standards, they look to
Social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner 1979) was originally developed to explain prejudice and discrimination, and the circumstances under which societies would move from relatively cooperative and harmonious arrangements to overt conflict. The theory has since expanded enormously, and has become the basis for a general social identity approach to social psychological and communicative phenomena.
It is a phenomenon that can be observed in all industrialized societies that media use is connected with demographic factors. As a rule, people from different social backgrounds also use the media differently. On the other hand, people from similar social backgrounds also show similarities in their use of the media. Thus, there is a
The social construction of technology (SCOT) is one approach among several constructivist ways of studying science and technology that emerged in the 1980s. Here, “constructivist” means that the truth of scientific facts and the working of technical artifacts are studied as accomplishments; that is, as being constructed, rather than as intrinsic properties of those facts
Social movements are shaped by gender systems and they also are a source of social change in gender. Some social movements directly attempt to change gender relations; these movements, particularly women’s movements, have been the focus of considerable scholarship. Increasingly, scholars also recognize the gendered nature of other social movements and the impact of systemic
Social Darwinism is the theory that human beings have a natural tendency to compete and that the strong will overcome the weak. The name comes from its association with Charles Darwin’s (1809-1882) biological theories of evolution and natural selection. Like many social theories that attempt to explain human behavior, Social Darwinism can best be seen
The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) comprises stakeholder expectations of the social, ethical, legal, and economic impacts of an organization. These expectations and the perceptions stakeholders have of an organization’s corporate social responsibility are central outcomes of business planning, management and operations, marketing, advertising, corporate communication, and public relations. Organizations seek to be perceived
Social mobilizations are concrete evidence of commitment and activism aimed at some form of social transformation, whether in the formal sense of changing laws or by influencing informal social norms. Mobilizations are episodic and shorter-lived than movements, and are often key milestones in the history of movements, providing observable evidence of solidarity, progress, and public
Research in rhetoric and social protest strives to discover how organized, uninstitutional forces use symbols and symbolic actions to promote or resist change in societal norms and values. Its focus ranges from interpersonal to mass communication, from the colonial period to the present, from moderate to radical elements, and from formal discourses to the rhetoric
Aristotle defines rhetoric as the art of determining the available means of persuasion in a particular case. This can be interpreted in a number of ways. When considered narrowly, the study of rhetoric can be equated with the psychology of persuasion or with informal logic. However, when that definition is read along with the rest
Nonprofit social service directors, also known as nonprofit directors, nonprofit chief executive officers, nonprofit administrators or social and community service managers, are at the top rung on the agency’s ladder. No matter what area the agency specializes in—health care, services for the aging, or youth development, for example—the director is the individual who spearheads the
Despite acknowledgments of sport as a legitimate focus of sociological analysis from early thinkers such as Spencer, Simmel, Weber, Scheler, and Mead (Luschen 1980), the lack of development in social theory and sport studies has been well documented (Frey & Eitzen 1991), although there appears to be increased movement toward the generation and integration of
The literature on sport and social capital is scarce and discussions are fragmented because there are disagreements about the definition of social capital, the role of sport in contributing to social capital, and the forms of social capital that may be generated in the sphere of sport. Three major approaches to social capital exist in
Public health, unlike medicine, is not about doctors treating individual patients. Public health is about population health. It is a collective social effort to promote health and prevent diseases – both communicable and noncommunicable – and disability that involves population surveillance, regulation of determinants of health (such as food safety and sanitation), and the provision
The social desirability bias is a major response set that is possibly active when data are collected in empirical social studies with interviews, psychometric tests, or questionnaires in particular. This tendency interferes with the “true values” of the subjects’ traits or states that are to be assessed and puts a systematic bias onto the measured
In a world of finite resources, growing populations, expanding democracy among weak nations, and expanding opportunities for communication across geographic boundaries, disagreements are inevitable. Disagreements might be about the distribution or conservation of resources, about status, power, or differences among various groups within the population, about the history of past interactions, or about a myriad
Social marketing is a tool or framework that “relies on multiple scientific disciplines to create programs designed to influence human behavior on a large scale” (Smith 2006, 138). It traces its roots to an article written in the 1950s by the sociologist G. D. Wiebe, who “expressed concern that marketing was not being applied to
In all societies, social critics challenge unequal distributions of wealth, power, and privilege, effects of social policy, and cultural change or transgression. Aggrieved groups may organize to pursue their shared beliefs and interests. If they are unable to obtain satisfaction by petitioning legitimized political, economic, and cultural institutions they may take to the streets. Social
Social networks are the interpersonal relationships people have with friends, family, colleagues, acquaintances, and others they may come into contact with directly or via media communications. Social network analysis is used to understand these social relationships and how they help explain individual and social behavior (Scott 2000; Wasserman & Faust 1994). Social networks are studied
What people choose to do, the behaviors they enact or refrain from enacting, is guided by a number of factors, including their own dispositions, the situational context in which they find themselves, the social roles they take on, and their interpersonal relationships. The study of how people’s behaviors are guided, in part, by social norms
Modern research methods for communication and social change reflect a tension between collecting data at the individual level while making inferences at macro-levels such as health-care systems, communities, and nations. This tension becomes more palpable when measuring the concerns of historically underserved, difficult-to-reach populations, those suffering the greatest inequalities in access to information, civic participation
The Concept Of Social Health Insurance Unlike private health insurance (PHI), ‘social’ health insurance (SHI) is characterized by three distinguishing features: Compulsory membership, at least for the great majority of the population. Community rating, i.e., premiums unrelated to individual risk. Open enrollment, i.e., even if the insurance market is competitively structured, an applicant cannot be
Planned social change is the result of an intervention by a change agent (an individual or organization that seeks to induce change) in order to transform the nature of human communities, most often as a response to some perceived problem such as health risks, environmental crises, political instability, economic hardships, underdeveloped infrastructures, and recovery from
The concept of secular social change in health communication studies emanates from the findings of quasi-experimental community and group randomized trials of health promotion campaigns. Specifically, many longitudinally designed intervention studies have discovered that outcome variables of interest (e.g., knowledge, beliefs, behaviors) often show changes over time trending in the same direction both in the
The accounting scandals such as Enron, Parmalat, and WorldCom have concentrated attention on the accountability and governance of corporations. Social accounting has been described and critiqued from a variety of positions, ranging from right wing neoliberal critiques all the way through to Marxist and deep green critiques. The different positions taken on the desirability or
Organizations as social structures is a perspective that focuses on the hardware of human association, the durable factors that govern people’s ways of being together as they achieve common goals by coordinated means. As it has been understood in the literature, social structure is what permits the organization’s persistence over time; it describes relations among
In its simplest form, the social construction of science means that there is no direct link between nature and our ideas about nature -the products of science are not themselves natural. This claim can be taken to mean different things and a distinction is often made between strong and weak interpretations of social constructivism. The
Social workers help people and assist communities in solving problems. These problems include poverty, racism, discrimination, physical and mental illness, addiction, and abuse. They counsel individuals and families, they lead group sessions, they research social problems, and they develop policy and programs. Social workers are dedicated to empowering people and helping them to preserve their
While anthropologists in the United States developed cultural anthropology, the British developed social anthropology. In the present, despite the fact that social anthropology departments still exist in Great Britain and in other parts of the world, social anthropology existed as a distinct discipline only from the early 1920s to the early 1970s. Historically, social anthropologists
Language and social interaction (LSI) refers to the area of communication research that studies how language, gesture, voice, and other features of talk and written texts shape meaning-making. LSI includes a loosely bounded set of topics and intellectual commitments. In contrast to the domain-of-life approach (e.g., political, interpersonal, or organizational communication) that is the typical
The core tenets of social cognitive theory (SCT) focus on the interrelationship among three sets of factors—namely personal, environmental, and behavioral. These factors are often described as being part of a reciprocal causal network whereby environmental, personal, and behavioral factors interact to determine a range of attitudinal and behavioral consequences. One of the key underpinning
This article delves into the intricate relationship between social support and disclosure outcomes within the realm of health psychology. The introduction provides a succinct overview of the pivotal role social support plays in health contexts, setting the stage for an exploration of theoretical frameworks guiding the understanding of social support mechanisms. The body of the
Social cognitive theory explains human accomplishments and well-being in terms of the interplay between individuals’ attributes, their behavior, and the influences operating in their environment. According to this view, people are contributors to their life circumstances, not just the products of them. They are characterized by a number of basic capabilities. These include cognitive, vicarious
This article explores the intricate relationship between social support and heart health within the realm of health psychology. Beginning with a foundational overview of heart health’s significance, the study delves into the multifaceted mechanisms of social support, examining emotional, instrumental, and informational dimensions. The subsequent section elucidates the psychological pathways through which social support influences
This health psychology article explores the intricate relationship between social engagement and cognitive decline, emphasizing the pivotal role of social interactions in shaping cognitive health. The first section delves into the concept of cognitive reserve, elucidating how various social activities contribute to building resilience against cognitive decline. Subsequently, the impact of loneliness and social isolation
Social Norms Definition Social norms are attributes of groups that generate expectations for the behavior of group members. Two types of norms differ in the source of the expectations. Descriptive norms refer to what most people in a group think, feel, or do; prescriptive or injunctive norms refer to what most people in a group
Social Power Definition Social power is the potential for social influence. The available tools one has to exert influence over another can lead to a change in that person. Social power and social influence are separate and distinct concepts. Although social power is potential (which may or may not be used), social influence is an
Social Categorization Definition Social categorization refers to the way a person’s mind clusters together individuals who share important characteristics. A person mentally groups people on the basis of their demographic features (e.g., sex, age, ethnicity, or religion), personality and interests (e.g., extraverts, nerds), and occupation, to name some of the most common types of social
Social Cognitive Neuroscience Definition Social cognitive neuroscience is the study of the processes in the human brain that allow people to understand others, understand themselves, and navigate the social world effectively. Social cognitive neuroscience draws on theories and psychological phenomena from across the social sciences, including social cognition, political cognition, behavioral economics, and anthropology. The
Social Projection Definition Social projection refers to the tendency to assume that others are similar to oneself. Students who cheat on their statistics exams, for example, probably believe that many others cheat as well, whereas honest students think that cheating is rare. Projection is not limited to value-laden behaviors such as cheating versus being honest
Social exchange theory is one of the most influential conceptual paradigms for understanding behavior. Over the years, differing perspectives on social exchange have evolved, bridging disciples such as anthropology, sociology, organizational theory, and social psychology. As a result, social exchange theory cannot be thought of as a single theoretical model. Rather, it is a general
Many tasks at work are designed to be performed by a group of employees, with the expectation that groups are more efficient and effective than individuals. Yet group performance is not always synonymous with great performance. One reason is that some group members do not work as hard as they should. In these cases, social
Social norms are implicit and explicit rules of behavior that develop through interactions among members of a given group or society. Essentially, norms are prescriptions for how people should act in particular situations. All groups have established norms that tell members what they should and should not do under certain circumstances. When agreed to and
Workplace social support refers to the availability or actual receipt of assistance provided to an employee by one or more individuals. It is generally examined as a means of coping with occupational stress. An important distinction concerns the sources of social support. Support may be provided by individuals within the organization—for example, supervisors, subordinates, coworkers
Discrimination is a complex social problem that affects individuals, groups, organizations, and society as a whole. Scholars describe discrimination as consisting of types (e.g., subtle or overt), occurring across levels (e.g., individual, institutional, cultural), and in relation to its targets (e.g., racial or ethnic, sexual, sexual orientation). The focus of study in many disciplines and
This health psychology article explores the intricate relationship between social support and chronic fatigue, elucidating the multifaceted ways in which various forms of support influence the experience and management of this debilitating condition. The introduction delineates the pervasive impact of chronic fatigue on individuals, emphasizing the imperative to investigate the role of social support. The
This article explores the pivotal role of social support in arthritis care within the framework of health psychology. The introduction delineates the significance of arthritis as a health concern, emphasizing the importance of psychosocial factors in its comprehensive management. The subsequent sections delve into the multifaceted dimensions of social support, categorizing it into emotional, instrumental
Downward Social Comparison Definition Social comparison involves thinking about one or more other people in relation to the self. Downward social comparison involves making comparisons with others who are inferior to, or less fortunate than, oneself in some way. Downward Social Comparison History and Background Leon Festinger’s theory of social comparison proposed that because people
Questions about moral and political philosophy necessarily entail a consideration of political economy, which comprises two fundamental and overlapping concerns: the relationship between government and business and the relationship between business and society. It is the second relationship that has spawned the notion of corporate social responsibility—which comprises a firm’s actions in that regard, or
This article explores the intricate relationship between aging and social support within the context of health psychology. The introduction delineates the significance of studying aging, introduces the multifaceted concept of social support, and establishes the central thesis focusing on the pivotal role of social support in aging well. The body of the article is divided
This article explores the intricate relationship between social factors and alcohol abuse within the realm of health psychology. Beginning with an overview of alcohol abuse as a pressing public health concern, the article delves into the profound influence of social environments, dissecting the role of family dynamics and peer pressures. Cultural factors and socioeconomic status
Social Comparison Definition Social comparison involves thinking about information about one or more other people in relation to the self. People may compare themselves with other people for a variety of reasons: to evaluate themselves (e.g., How good at math am I?), to learn from others (e.g., How much did that person study to ace
Social skills are fundamental to human interaction and development. This article explores the multifaceted landscape of social skills, focusing on their development in children and adolescents, the various types of social skills, and the assessment and intervention methods used by school psychologists. Understanding social skills’ critical role in communication, emotional regulation, and conflict resolution is
In the context of participating in a psychology study, social desirability bias refers to the tendency to present one’s self in a favorable way rather than to give accurate answers. In other words, participants have a tendency to answer in ways that make them look good in the eyes of others, regardless of the accuracy
Social Exclusion Definition Social exclusion refers to keeping an individual or group out of social situations. It typically occurs in the context that the individual or group is believed to possess undesirable characteristics or characteristics deemed unworthy of attention. Acts of social exclusion are observed in humans and other social animals. Researchers agree that social
Social Support Definition In general, social support refers to the various ways in which individuals aid others. Social support has been documented as playing an important and positive role in the health and well-being of individuals. To receive support from another, one must participate in at least one important relationship. However, social support has often
People differ in how they approach others. Some people tend to approach others in a cooperative manner, whereas other people tend to approach others in a more self-centered manner. Such social dispositions have been demonstrated to be quite important in various contexts and are often examined under the heading of social value orientation. This concept
Social Compensation Definition Social compensation refers to the phenomenon that individuals increase their effort on a collective task (compared with how hard they try when working individually) to compensate for the anticipated poor performance of other group members. People are more likely to compensate when they think their coworkers are not going to perform well
Social Dominance Orientation Definition Social dominance orientation (SDO) is a measure of an individual’s support for group-based hierarchies. It reflects a person’s attitudes toward hierarchies in general, as well as beliefs about whether one’s own group should dominate other groups. People with high SDO believe that society should be structured in terms of inequality, with
Social Justice Orientation Definition When, why, and how do people decide that something is fair or unfair? For the past half-century, social justice has been an active area of study for social psychologists. Social justice researchers st udy both individuals and groups, trying to understand how people make justice decisions and what they perceive and
Social Loafing Definition Social loafing refers to a decline in motivation and effort found when people combine their efforts to form a group product. People tend to generate less output or to contribute less effort when working on a task collectively where contributions are combined than when working individually. The consequence is that people are
In everyday language, loneliness describes feeling disconnected from important others by virtue of physical separation or emotional conflict. In psychology, loneliness is defined as having an inadequate or less satisfying network of friends and family than is desired. Loneliness and aloneness are distinct; solitude is enjoyed when one wants to be alone, whereas loneliness can
Social Anxiety Definition Social anxiety, as the term implies, refers to anxiety (a feeling of emotional distress akin to fear or panic) experienced in interpersonal situations, such as job interviews, dates, public presentations, or casual social gatherings. Because of the variety of situations in which people experience social anxiety, several specific types of social anxiety
Social Dilemmas Definition A social dilemma is a situation in which a group of people must work together to achieve some goal that no one person could easily meet alone. However, if the goal is met, all group members, even those who did not help toward the goal, can enjoy its benefits. This feature introduces
Social Facilitation Definition Social facilitation refers to the general phenomenon that physical and cognitive performance is improved when other people are present (and possibly watching the performer). Psychologists use the term social facilitation/inhibition to indicate that performance is sometimes facilitated while being observed, and other times inhibited in the presence of others. The critical factor
Social Learning Definition Social learning refers to the learning that occurs in social contexts. More precisely, it refers to adaptive behavior change (learning) stemming from observing other people (or other animals), rather than learning from one’s own direct experience. People acquire and change social behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions from observing and imitating the actions
Originally developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner to understand the psychological bases of intergroup discrimination, social identity theory seeks to explain the psychological and social bases for intergroup behavior and has more recently been used to also understand intragroup processes. Social identity theory can be used in the contexts of multicultural counseling, research, and
For thousands of years there has been philosophical debate about what it is that makes humans different from other species of animals on Earth. Whether one believes that humans are just another step in the evolutionary process or descended from aliens, there is no denying that humans are different from other animals. Although many aspects
Social Influence Definition Social influence means any noncoercive technique, device, procedure, or manipulation that relies on the social psychological nature of the organism as the means for creating or changing the belief or behavior of a target, regardless of whether or not this attempt is based on the specific actions of an influence agent or
Philosophers throughout the ages have debated whether humans actually intend to perform altruistic actions, actions that are beneficial to others and costly to the actor, without any clear resolution. In recent decades, psychologists have addressed the long-standing philosophical debate over the existence of altruism, usually defined as unselfish concern for the welfare of others, with
Social Impact Theory Definition Social impact theory proposes that the amount of influence a person experiences in group settings depends on (a) strength (power or social status) of the group, (b) immediacy (physical or psychological distance) of the group, and (c) the number of people in the group exerting the social influence (i.e., number of
Developed over nearly five decades by Albert Bandura, social cognitive theory—which emphasizes the reciprocal interaction of behavior, cognitive, and other personal factors, and environmental influences on human functioning—has been carefully derived from empirical findings and subjected to repeated tests within many areas of human functioning. This reciprocal process of theory development and testing has, over
Social Relations Model Definition The social relations model is a theoretical and statistical approach to studying how people perceive others. Although investigations of person perception have a long history in social psychology, early methodological approaches relied on research participants reporting their perceptions of fictitious others who were described in brief stories. The social relations model
Social support has been one of the most widely examined constructs in social science research since the 1970s, although the concept originated over a century ago. Social support is defined as those social interactions or relationships that provide individuals with actual assistance or that embed individuals within a social system believed to provide love, caring
Social Exchange Theory Definition Social exchange theory is a broad social psychological perspective that attempts to explain how human social relationships are formed, maintained, and terminated. The basic premise of this theory is that how people feel about a given interaction or relationship depends fundamentally on the outcomes that they perceive to be associated with
Social Identity Theory Definition and History Social identity theory explains how the self-concept is associated with group membership and group and intergroup behavior. I t defines group membership in terms of people’s identification, definition, and evaluation of themselves as members of a group (social identity) and specifies cognitive, social interactive and societal processes that interact
Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) seeks to explain three interrelated aspects of career development: (1) how basic academic and career interests develop, (2) how educational and career choices are made, and (3) how academic and career success is obtained. Developed by Robert W. Lent, Steven D. Brown, and Gail Hackett in 1994, SCCT incorporates a
Social class is implicated in almost every facet of the human experience, but for counselors and other mental health care providers, social class is difficult to understand. A lack of theoretical clarity between social class and socioeconomic status, not connecting classism as a function of social class, and psychologists’ use of a sociological framework to
Social justice refers to the promotion of full and equal participation of all individuals and groups, allowing their needs to be met equally. Most societies around the world have fallen short of creating conditions of social justice. This is evidenced by the existence of marginalization in many societies, as evidenced by the fact that many
Social cognitive theory (SCT), promulgated by psychologist Albert Bandura, has been used widely to explain health behaviors across different populations. Lifestyle physical activity (PA), resistance training (RT), and sport performance are examples of these types of behavior. Interventions to improve sport performance or increase PA participation have been developed using the SCT framework and shown
Social comparative emotions are elicited when there is a reflection and comparison of one’s personal attributes with an individual or group of others who may pose a threat to the self. Social comparative emotions are evoked when there appears to be large a discrepancy between the self and another, in domains that are important and
Social comparison is a process in which self-appraisals are formed and involves evaluating one’s skills, attributes, belongings, and so forth compared with those of others. Social Comparison Theory Social comparison theory, proposed by Leon Festinger in 1954, states that individuals have an innate drive to maintain stable and accurate appraisals of themselves and do so
Identity exists along a spectrum that ranges from the personal to the social. The personal end of this spectrum is constituted by the distinctive combination of attributes that an individual deems relevant to his or her self-concept (e.g., being shy or tall). The social end of this spectrum, in contrast, is constituted by the extent
Social marketing employs commercial marketing strategies to try to solve social problems and to effect voluntary behavior change. An important aspect of social marketing is message framing, which is the tone or valence in which the information related to the behavior is conveyed. This entry discusses social marketing and message framing in the context of
Exercise scientist William P. Morgan often contrasted how exercise physiologists and exercise psychologists study the exercising human. The physiologists were seen as unconcerned with what happened above the neck, choosing instead to focus only on physiological processes that changed during and after exercise and making the erroneous assumption that affect, cognitions, and perceptions were unimportant
Researchers have been studying the measurement properties, correlates, and outcomes of social physique anxiety (SPA) for more than two decades. With roots in social anxiety, self-presentation, and body image affect, SPA is defined as the anxiety that an individual experiences when he or she perceives that others could be negatively evaluating his or her physique.
Social processing effects are grounded within individuals’ assessments and interpretations of social contextual information. Because sport and exercise psychology (SEP) is the scientific study of how people and their behaviors affect and are affected by the environmental contexts in which they operate, social processing effects can best be viewed through a social–psychological lens. The social
This article explores the complex interplay between social comparison and body image within the realm of health psychology. Beginning with a nuanced exploration of social comparison theory, the narrative progresses to elucidate the theoretical frameworks surrounding body image, incorporating perspectives such as sociocultural, cognitive-behavioral, and social learning. The article systematically unravels the impact of social
This article explores the complex relationship between social comparison and weight management within the realm of health psychology. Beginning with an elucidation of social comparison in the context of weight management, the article delves into historical perspectives, providing a foundation for understanding its evolution. Theoretical frameworks, such as Festinger’s Social Comparison Theory, and the nuances
This article explores the complex relationship between social comparison and healthcare decision-making within the framework of health psychology. Beginning with an overview of social comparison theory, the discussion delves into its theoretical underpinnings, encompassing upward and downward social comparison, as well as the identification of reference groups in healthcare contexts. The exploration unfolds further by
This article explores the intricate relationship between social media and mental health within the context of health psychology. The introduction provides a foundation by outlining the prevalence and significance of social media in contemporary society, emphasizing the need to investigate its impact on mental well-being. The first body section examines positive aspects, emphasizing the potential
This article explores the complex interplay of coping mechanisms and social comparison processes among cancer patients within the realm of health psychology. The introduction sets the stage by highlighting the significance of understanding the psychological aspects of individuals facing the formidable challenge of cancer. The first section explores coping mechanisms, elucidating diverse strategies employed by
The article on social support in quitting smoking explores the pivotal role of social support within the context of smoking cessation from a health psychology perspective. Beginning with an overview of smoking cessation’s significance and the pervasive impact of smoking on public health, the introduction underscores the necessity of examining social support in this domain.
This article explores the multifaceted intersection of online social support and health within the realm of health psychology. Beginning with an elucidation of the concept and historical evolution of online social support, the article explores the theoretical frameworks underpinning its efficacy, comparing traditional face-to-face support with its online counterparts. The subsequent sections dissect various types
Social isolation, characterized by a lack of meaningful social connections, has emerged as a critical factor influencing health outcomes across the lifespan. This comprehensive review explores the complex relationship between social isolation and health risks within the framework of health psychology. The introduction defines social isolation and underscores the pivotal role of social connections in
This article delves into the relationship between health psychology and the experience of helplessness, focusing on the role played by social and environmental factors. The introduction provides a contextual backdrop, emphasizing the significance of comprehending these factors in the realm of health psychology. The first section explores social factors, intricately examining the impact of social
This article explores the complex relationship between social support and the health of the elderly within the framework of health psychology. The introduction outlines the significance of this inquiry, emphasizing the unique focus on psychological factors in understanding the well-being of older individuals. The three main sections delve into the diverse dimensions of social support
This article explores the intricate relationship between social support and coping mechanisms within the realm of health psychology. The introduction delineates the significance of understanding these constructs, defining social support and coping mechanisms, and emphasizing their crucial roles in navigating health challenges. The first main section explores the impact of social support on health, categorizing
This article explores the complex relationship between social support and stress reduction within the realm of health psychology. Stress, a ubiquitous aspect of daily life, has profound implications for physical and mental health. The article begins by elucidating the theoretical foundations of stress, identifying common stressors, and underscoring the detrimental effects of chronic stress on
This article delves into the intricate interplay between social relationships and quality of life within the realm of health psychology. Beginning with an overview of the field, the introduction emphasizes the critical need to understand the impact of social connections on well-being. The subsequent sections explore the profound effects of social relationships on both physical
This article explores the complex relationship between social networks and mental health outcomes within the realm of health psychology. Beginning with an introduction that contextualizes the significance of social networks in contemporary society, the paper delves into an overview of how social support, social isolation, and various positive and negative social influences shape mental well-being.
This article explores the complex relationship between social support and physical health within the realm of health psychology. The introduction provides a foundational understanding of social support, emphasizing its relevance in the context of health psychology. The theoretical framework delves into models such as the Buffering Hypothesis and the Main Effects Model, establishing a conceptual
This article explores the complex relationship between social comparison and mental health disorders within the realm of health psychology. It begins by elucidating the foundations of social comparison theory, exploring both its positive and negative implications on individuals’ mental well-being. The discussion then extends to the pervasive influence of social media, dissecting the role it
This article explores the complex role of social comparisons in the context of recovery and rehabilitation within health psychology. Beginning with an overview of health psychology’s relevance to the recovery process, the exploration centers on the theoretical foundations such as Festinger’s Social Comparison Theory and Tesser’s Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model. The review of empirical studies showcases
This article delves into the interplay between social determinants and mental health within the realm of health psychology. Beginning with an elucidation of social determinants and their significance in mental health research, the narrative unfolds in three distinct sections. The first segment examines economic factors, scrutinizing the intricate links between income, unemployment, and socio-economic disparities
This article explores the intricate interplay between social norms and sexually transmitted disease (STD) risk behaviors, utilizing a comprehensive analysis within the framework of health psychology. Beginning with an overview of the prevalence and significance of STDs, the exploration centers on the role of social norms in shaping individual behaviors. Theoretical foundations, including Social Cognitive
This article explores the complex role of social comparison within the domain of health and illness, exploring its theoretical foundations, psychological implications, and practical applications. Beginning with an overview of social comparison theory, this discourse dissects the various types of social comparison, such as upward, downward, and lateral, and scrutinizes the factors influencing these comparisons
This article explores the complex dynamics of social support in the realm of chronic illness management within the framework of health psychology. Beginning with an exploration of various forms of social support, including emotional, instrumental, and informational support, the discussion navigates through their distinct roles in fostering well-being among individuals facing chronic health challenges. The
This article explores the multifaceted impact of social media on health comparisons within the framework of health psychology, with a focus on the social comparison theory. The introduction defines health comparisons and provides a succinct overview of the rise of social media platforms. The body of the article delves into both the positive and negative