Sports and the media, from the vantage point of the twenty-first century, are so deeply interconnected as to give the impression of a smooth integration between two powerful socio-cultural institutions. Many – perhaps most – people across the world have a daily encounter with the sports media in some form, including print, electronic, online, and
Sports equipment managers are responsible for maintaining, ordering, and inventorying athletic equipment and apparel. They deal with everything from fitting football shoulder pads to sharpening hockey skates to doing the team’s laundry. There are more than 800 equipment managers employed in the United States, with the majority working for collegiate and high school teams. Sports
In general, sports psychologists work with amateur and professional athletes to improve their mental and physical health, as well as athletic performances, by using goal setting, imagery, focus strategies, and relaxation techniques, among others. Sports psychologists also strive to help athletes to mentally prepare for competition. There are approximately 179,000 psychologists employed in the United
Sports Careers Background The first organized athletic events took place in Greece in 776 BC, with the advent of the ancient Olympic Games. The Olympics featured running races, throwing contests, and other competitive events, with the greatest athletes from the Greek empire competing. The Olympics, even then, were colorful events and people from nearby countries
Sports broadcasters, or sportscasters, for radio and television stations select, write, and deliver footage of current sports news for the sports segment of radio and television news broadcasts or for specific sports events, channels, or shows. They may provide pre- and postgame coverage of sports events, including interviews with coaches and athletes, as well as
Sports executives, sometimes known as team presidents, CEOs, and general managers, manage professional, collegiate, and minor league sports teams. They are responsible for the teams’ finances, as well as overseeing the other departments within the organization, such as marketing, public relations, accounting, ticket sales, advertising, sponsorship, and community relations. Sports executives also work on establishing
Stadium, arena, and facility managers, sometimes called general managers, sports facility managers, or stadium operations executives, are responsible for the day-to-day operations involved in running a sports facility. They are involved in sports facility planning, including the buying, selling, or leasing of facilities; facility redesign and construction; and the supervision of sports facilities, including the
Virtual sports are symbolic representations of embodied, expressive, and ‘‘real world’’ athletic experiences. These sports can involve complete ‘‘out of body’’ practices wherein participants ‘‘play’’ a sport without exerting their bodies in a traditionally athletic way (i.e., a sports video game), or more embodied performances involving physical activity in a simulated sports environment (i.e., athletic
Youth is defined for the purposes of this discussion as youngsters between 6 and 18 years. Sport means all sport activities practiced outside the physical education curriculum. Consequently, school sport as extracurricular activity is also included. With the start of the Sport for All movement in the 1960s and 1970s, this period can be characterized
The existence of a close relationship between sports and nationalism is widely accepted. This relationship manifests itself in the concept of national sports, in the enduring popularity of international competitions, events, and contests, and in the myriad ways in which politicians and politically motivated groups have sought to harness sport to national causes. On the
Sports and religion have a conflicted relationship. At times, sport has served the objectives of religious authorities and has been imbued with a morality and philosophy derived from religious doctrine. At others, it has been rejected for its secular, corporeal emphasis and its capacity to divert attention from godly activities. Sport has been utilized as
There is a long tradition of research on sports and socialization. The roots of this research are grounded in theories that explain the role of play in child development, in Progressive era notions that team sports constituted an environment in which valuable lessons could be learned, and in popular twentieth century assumptions that playing sports
People in all cultures have always engaged in playful physical activities and used human movement as part of their everyday routines and collective rituals (Huizinga 1955). The first examples of organized games in societies worldwide probably emerged in the form of various combinations of physical activities and religious rituals (Guttmann 1978). Those games were connected
Sport became an industry at the point at which events (matches, races, bouts) ceased to be oriented solely toward participants and became largely organized so that they could be consumed by spectators. In perhaps the earliest sociological analysis of this process, Gregory P. Stone (1955) argued that consequently ‘‘play’’ (unscripted, spontaneous) became overshadowed by ‘‘display’’
There are two likely sources for the word gambling: the Old Saxon gamene, which became abbreviated to the contemporary ‘‘game’’; or the Italian gambetto, source of ‘‘gambit,’’ a practice of sacrificing something minor in order to secure a larger advantage. Gambling now refers to playing games of luck or skill, using a stake, usually a
Gender refers to the socially constructed differences between women and men, while the term ‘‘sex’’ is a reference to the biological and physical differences between males and females. Gender draws attention to the socially unequal distinction between femininity and masculinity. Femininity is used to describe characteristic behaviors and emotions of females and masculinity refers to
There is widespread acceptance of the idea that ‘‘sport is good for health.’’ The ideology linking health and sports has a long history and the promotion and maintenance of the health of schoolchildren has long been an area of concern to physical educators in Europe and America. Outline Exercise, Sport, and Health The Epidemiology of
Ideology and sports refers to the way in which the latter, as a distinct form of leisure activity, impacts upon the body of ideas which reflect the beliefs of a social group or political system. Indeed, the ideological capacity of sport can be considered so great that it may now be apt to rework Marx’s
According to the ideal type suggested by Freidson (2001), sport does not exhibit all of the characteristics of a profession. Unlike archetypal high status professions (e.g., medicine) in which the practitioners rather than governments or markets exert significant control over their labor, professional athletes work in cartels and oligopolies where they must respond to the
Race and sports have been in complex articulation since the nineteenth century, yet a critical sociology of sport and race has only developed substantially since the 1990s. In the 1960s a few academic studies and journalistic accounts examined segregation and racial discrimination in sport, but these were largely descriptive. Two exceptions to this were C.
Many sports can be considered alternatives to dominant sport forms, but the term alternative sport has generally been used in sociology to refer to a group of activities that meet a particular set of organizational criteria. Alternative sports initially existed outside of formal sports organizations and participants were primarily young people who, for one reason
Amateurism in sport is at once ideology, a network of sports organizations, and a system of athletic eligibility. First articulated in Victorian England – there is absolutely no substance to the International Olympic Committee’s oft made claim that amateurism governed the athletics of ancient Greece – amateurism melded the upper class desire for social hierarchy
Although they are often framed as “merely” fun and games, sports and the communication that surrounds them influence social norms. Many scholars recognize that the “sports– media complex,” identified as such by Jhally (1989, 77) because of the virtually inseparable relationship between high-profile sports and media, is one that entertains but also reflects and reinforces
Sports trainers, also referred to as athletic trainers, certified sports medicine trainers, and certified sports medicine therapists, help amateur and professional athletes prevent injuries, give first aid when an injury occurs during a practice or event, and manage the rehabilitation programs and routines of injured athletes. Athletic trainers often consult with physicians during all stages
Sports scouts observe athletic contests to gather information that will help the team that employs them. They may attend a game in the hopes of recruiting a player, or they may accumulate information about an opponent’s players and strategies. There are approximately 1,000 professional sports scouts in the United States. History of Sports Scout Career
There are two types of sports publicists: those who work for professional and amateur teams and those who work for individual professional athletes. Sports team publicists handle the daily press operations for the organization. They handle the media relations, set up interviews with players, ensure that the correct information is distributed to the press, and
Sports physicians, also known as team physicians, treat patients who have sustained injuries to their musculoskeletal systems during the play or practice of an individual or team sporting event. Sports physicians also do preparticipation tests and physical exams. Some sports physicians create educational programs to help athletes prevent injury. Sports physicians work for schools, universities
Sports photographers are specialists hired to shoot pictures of sporting events and athletes. They work for newspapers, magazines, and photo stock agencies to bring photos of events of all sizes (from a Little League game to the Olympics) to the pages of periodicals, the Internet, or other publications. Their pictures should clearly capture the movements
Sports instructors demonstrate and explain the skills and rules of particular sports, like golf or tennis, to individuals or groups. They help beginners learn basic rules, stances, grips, movements, and techniques of a game. Sports instructors often help experienced athletes to sharpen their skills. Coaches work with a single, organized team or individual, teaching the
Sports agents act as representatives for professional athletes in many different types of negotiations, providing advice and representation concerning contracts, endorsement and advertisement deals, public appearances, and financial investments and taxes, among other areas. They may represent only one athlete or many, depending on the sport, the size of their agency, and the demands of
Obesity is commonly defined as a body mass index of 30 kg/m2or higher. Increasing rates of obesity in many countries represent a great challenge for public health. In the United States, for example, the rate of adult obesity exceeds 35%. Obesity is associated with increased risk of premature mortality resulting from chronic diseases (e.g., diabetes,
The dualistic model of passion (DMP) describes two types of passion, namely harmonious and obsessive passion. This model allows for a better understanding of the passion of people involved in sport (athletes, coaches, referees, and fans) as well as the outcomes they experience. The DMP defines passion as a strong inclination toward a self-defining activity
Pleasure and displeasure comprise a bipolar dimension that is the most important ingredient of core affect. As such, pleasure and displeasure provide texture to conscious experiences and form the foundation of emotions and moods. Furthermore, pleasure and displeasure have long been considered by many philosophers and psychologists as powerful motives. Pleasure is of particular interest
Practice typically comprises activities that are designed to help a person acquire a new skill, improve in an already acquired skill, or maintain a skill. Practice can be deliberate and engaged in for a specific purpose (such as attaining a speed or accuracy goal) or it can be more incidental in nature, potentially engaged in
Priming refers to the process of temporarily activating an individual’s mental constructs (i.e., trait concepts, stereotypes, contexts, goals) and observing the subsequent effect of this activation on psychological, social, and/or motor behavior phenomena. Every individual possesses a set of mental representations (that are constantly being added to or developed) about themselves and the world around
In sport, some events, occurrences, and outcomes are more probable than others, and the potential exists to use information about probabilities to aid performance. This entry discusses two levels on which probabilities are relevant to sport performance. The first is the individual, immediate performance level. On this level, probabilities are used implicitly during performance; performers
The term race is not easily defined; it has complicated and contested meanings contingent upon historical and social contexts. In a general sense, scholars within, and outside, sport psychology (SP) have conceptualized race as having biological and/or social distinctions. From a biological perspective, race refers to individuals who are perceived by others, and perhaps by
Repetition can make a simple behavior very powerful. Improving your physical health by exercising, increasing body strength by working out, or building up your potting skills in playing snooker can only be achieved by frequently executing these behaviors. However, people often struggle to maintain such regimes; sport schools typically see a decline in attendance a
Flow is a special psychological state of total absorption in a task. When in flow, athletes are fully focused on what they are doing, and this heightened attention is associated with a number of positive factors. Accompanying a focused mindset are factors such as knowing exactly what one is going to do and how one
Exercise identity is a construct that captures the extent to which one sees exercise as a part of one’s self-concept, or who one is. This self-perception has been related to exercise behavior and may be of interest to researchers and practitioners who are invested in understanding and promoting exercise adherence. Adhering to recommended levels of
Mindfulness is a state of non-judging awareness and acceptance of internal experiences. This state has been achieved through evidence-driven mindfulness-based interventions that are useful for the treatment of psychological concerns and for the enhancement of performance among athletes and other performers. This entry describes the basic processes associated with mindfulness, the intervention components that enhance
The concept of diversity encompasses a broad range of qualities and characteristics that distinguish people from one another. Diversity is used broadly to refer to demographic characteristics including, but not limited to, sex, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, ability status, age, national origin, religious beliefs, and education. Diversity is important for a number of reasons.
Feminism is a movement to end oppression, especially as it relates to sexism. Feminism can be taken up in many contexts such as sport and exercise, where theorists and practitioners engage with feminist theory, feminist activism, feminist politics, feminist education, feminist class, race, or gender struggle, and global feminism to varying degrees. In this entry,
A goal is simply something you are trying to accomplish; it is the object or aim of an action. Although goals can function at an unconscious level, the process of goal setting represents the deliberate establishment and refinement of goals and the evaluation of goal progress. The concept of goals and the practice of goal
Sport commitment is a central motivational construct because it goes right to the heart of athletes’ persistent pursuit of their sport. Simply put, it is a psychological state explaining why athletes do what they do. There are two types of sport commitment: enthusiastic and constrained. Enthusiastic commitment (EC) is the psychological construct representing the desire
Competition is often described as a contest, or a process of contesting, between two or more parties (organisms, individuals, or groups) for a scarce resource or good. The scarcity can result from nature or history, such as competition for limited food, or it can be created artificially, such as the good of winning a game.
In 1954, Muzafer Sherif, O. J. Harvey, B. Jack White, William R. Hood, and Carolyn W. Sherif undertook a project that allowed them to examine inter and intragroup relationships in a naturalistic setting. This classic field-based experimental study, known as the Robbers Cave Experiment because of its location (Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma), involved
Conformity refers to the process of matching one’s actions or beliefs with the behavior and norms of those around us. Research into the nature of this phenomenon was popularized by prominent social psychologists in the early to mid-20th century such as Muzafer Sherif and Solomon Asch. Today, there exists a well-established literature base regarding the
Sport psychology professionals maintain an ethical obligation to ensure services are helping clients (and conversely, not harming them), and thus allowing clients the opportunity to provide feedback is a key element of effective service provision. Components of Evaluation There are a variety of subjective (or self-report) and objective measures available that consultants can select to
Consulting may be described as a temporary relationship that is developed when an individual or entity seeks information or advice. Consultation may occur at the individual, group, or organizational level. It is intended to help the designated client function more effectively and efficiently within a specific setting. Although consultation is a helping relationship, it differs
This article delves into the pivotal role of biofeedback in the realm of sports psychology, offering a nuanced exploration of its historical evolution, fundamental principles, and diverse applications. Beginning with a concise introduction to biofeedback and its increasing significance in sports psychology, the article systematically examines the intricate ways in which this technique enhances athletic
Vision is the process of seeing and perceiving the surrounding environment by using information contained in light. Appropriate visual information is imperative for almost every sporting task to ensure that athletes are able to monitor the actions of others, while also perceiving their position in relation to targets, such as balls, nets, and walls, and the
Self-discrepancy is incongruence (i.e., mismatch, lack of agreement) in one’s perception of his or her actual attributes and one’s internalized standards or ideals. In sport and exercise psychology (SEP), self-discrepancies are often studied in the realm of body image, whereby actual weight is compared to an ideal that is either established from societal norms or
The field of health psychology encompasses a diverse range of factors that influence sports and athletic performance, with psychological, cognitive, and psychophysiological aspects playing pivotal roles. This article explores the intricate interplay of these factors, beginning with an introduction to health psychology and its relevance to sports performance. The first section delves into the psychological