A zoological garden is an establishment housing collections of both wild and domestic animals that are exhibited to the public. Zoos reflect the curiosity and intrigue of humankind toward our animal kingdom. Zoos also reflect our responsibility as a species to promote conservation through education and make an attempt to manage our globe by studying
The largest Black ethnic group in South Africa is the Zulu, whose population stands at about nine million. The Zulu have a relatively brief history as an independent group. The term Zulu refers to the Nguni speaking people in KwaZulu Natal in South Africa. The Zulu are a branch of the southern Bantu, who have
Yeti is the mysterious giant bipedal creature of the eternal snows of the Himalayas. The yeti (yeh-teh) has always been a part of the cosmology of Lamaistic Buddhist peoples of the Himalayas, who class it as not quite human yet more than human, and keep relics of it in monasteries. As early as the 1830s, “westerners”
News is a genre of mass media content resulting from journalists’ information gathering and editors’ decisions and following professional practices and norms. News is the product of teamwork in media outlets. According to functional-structural social theory, news content is information that seeks to meet social needs by observing the natural and human universe in order
The city of Troy, situated on the northwest coast of modern Turkey, occupies a special place in Western culture. The story of the sack of Troy told by Homer was considered history in antiquity, then myth, then imaginative poetry, and then history again. It provided a major theme for Western art throughout the millennia; created
The nature of news content has changed during the past decades due to the changes in media environment. As new media such as cable television, satellite television, and the Internet have appeared, the news media market has become more competitive than ever and news contents have tended to be more audience-oriented and softer. The problem
The many differences between the ways time is understood in different cultures, as well as the ways in which such differences might affect those cultures, can be divided into three main areas: what time is, how time is experienced, and how it is measured— the metaphysics of time, the perception of time, and the metric
News is a genre of mass media content resulting from journalists’ information gathering and editors’ decisions and following professional practices and norms. News is the product of teamwork in media outlets. According to functional-structural social theory, news content is information that seeks to meet social needs by observing the natural and human universe in order
Dedicating himself to the dual goals of “action anthropology” and the internationalization of anthropology, Sol Tax was instrumental in changing anthropological practice and pioneering new forums for anthropological debate. Although he published relatively little over the course of his career, Tax made significant contributions in three theoretical areas of anthropological research: acculturation, capitalism in small-scale
In societies with a tradition of partisan news media, whether news organizations have a political bias in their reporting is less of a concern. In other environments where mainstream news media purport to be fair and objective, and journalists are expected to be neutral gatekeepers instead of partisan advocates, whether or not the news media
The BBC started life not as a public corporation but as a private company. Formed in 1922, the early BBC operated as a cartel, consisting of several wireless manufacturers, including the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company, one of the main pioneers of wireless telephony. Though it was to all intents and purposes a private enterprise, its
Rock art is painted, engraved, or scratched elements (signs, figures, writings) on rocky surfaces such as open-air rocks, caves, decorated menhir, boulders, and slabs. It may also include portable art and other forms of artistic representations of prehistoric populations. Often it is identified with cave art. The scientific study of rock art using archaeological methods
Rapa Nui is a small (160 km) remote subtropical island in the South Pacific Ocean, 3600 km west of Chile, the nation of which it forms a part, and 1900 km east-southeast of Pitcairn Island, the nearest inhabited island. It is known to outsiders as Easter Island (Isla de Pascua in Spanish), so named by
Archaeology in the South American country of Peru has an extensive history that has uncovered the development of the largest native state to evolve in the Western Hemisphere, the Inca. The material representations of the Inca include monumental architecture, and ceramics and metallurgy craftwork from nearly a dozen separate and distinct cultures, each with their
At the time of the first European contact, among the aboriginal groups that inhabited the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego were the Selk’nam, or Onas. Onas was the name their neighbors, the Yaganes or Yamanas, gave to this group. The Selk’nam lived in the northern steppe grassland of the grand island of Tierra del Fuego.
John Ogbu was a major figure in educational anthropology. The impact of his writings and his influence on hundreds of students and colleagues will be felt for decades to come. His work has been translated into numerous languages and has influenced educational debates within and beyond the field of anthropology. Like many scholars before and
June C. Nash stimulated feminist anthropology and the anthropology of work, and she has been a key figure in the study of social change within the global economy. She received her PhD from the University of Chicago in 1961 and spent most of her career at City College and the Graduate Center of the City
Karl Heinrich Marx was born on May 5, 1818, in Trier, Germany, and he died on March 14, 1883, in London. Both of his parents were Jewish, but a year before Karl was born, his successful lawyer father had converted to Protestantism. His mother, born Henrietta Pressburg, took care of the household. From 1830 to
Mana is the Polynesian and Melanesian concept of communicable supernatural power. This is a variant of a probably universal belief in a power that exists to varying degrees in things in nature. In most cultures, it is believed that the power is vital for the interactive participatory role of things in an interconnected cosmos, but
Cable News Network (CNN) has become an icon of the globalized news world. CNN’s rise as one of the most prominent global news organizations is based on a successful strategic integration of three key spheres of journalism: (1) an innovative approach to internationalization; (2) the invention of unique presentation styles, such as “breaking news”; and
Koba, located in the northeastern Yucatan peninsula in the modern Mexican state of Quintana Roo, functioned as a Classic Maya metropolis. The center was also occupied in the Preclassic and Postclassic periods. The site includes prominent archaeological features such as pyramids, tombs, vaulted structures on elevated platforms, staircases, altar stones, stone carved slabs (stelae), and
The term Kula Ring refers to the circulation of shell valuables between island communities in the Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea. Bronislaw Malinowski was the first anthropologist to document the exchange in a classic anthropological text, Argonauts of the Western Pacific, written in 1922. Anthropologists working in the latter half of the 20th
In 1887 a Dutch anatomist, Eugene Dubois, joined the Dutch army as a means to bring him to south Asia to hunt for the “missing link.” His major interest was the theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin in 1854. Dubois received an assignment in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) where he assumed humans
The title Jews has multiple variations in meaning. Jew is a term that can refer both to adherents of the religion Judaism and to members of an ethnicity (those who are Jewish). In the religious sense, Jews are followers of Judaism, whether or not they are ethnically Jewish. In the ethnic sense, Jews are those
Outsourcing, offshoring, downsizing, rightsizing, and reorganizing: Every day, local and national headlines proclaim events that mean just one thing to workers— their jobs are at risk. Job loss, as discussed here, is the involuntary removal of paid employment from an individual. Those who experience job loss are known by many different names: they are “laid
The Iron Age is the final period of European prehistory. The beginning of the European Iron Age is conventionally defined as the date when iron replaced bronze for the manufacture of weapons and tools in the early 1st millennium BCE. In many parts of Central and Western Europe, the Iron Age ends when these regions
The Ik are a hunter-gatherer and agricultural group who live in the Morungole mountains, around the Kidepo Valley, in northeastern Uganda. They are few, numbering several thousand, but are famous within anthropology because of Colin Turnbull’s extraordinary book The Mountain People, for which he was roundly criticized within anthropology. Turnbull is perhaps the only anthropologist
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the retro-virus responsible for the clinical spectrum of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Once infected by the virus, an individual is said to be HIV positive. HIV then attacks and progressively destroys key elements of the immune system, rendering victims susceptible to a host of opportunistic infections and rare cancers.
The belief in and attempt to manipulate the supernatural is widespread throughout humanity. Although the particular content of any people’s religious or spiritual beliefs is dependent on their specific environment, lifestyle, social configuration, and history, the presence of spiritual or supernatural beliefs of some sort in virtually every society suggests that there may be a
The term god is very vague; its common uses include reference to an extremely wide range of sorts of thing, including living human beings (for example, the Egyptian pharaohs and the Roman emperors), humanlike beings with superhuman powers (for example, the Greek pantheon), and impersonal or even abstract concepts (for example, the Hindu Brahman). The
Gene flow is the transfer of genes from one population to another population, usually by migration of one population into the other population’s territory. Descriptively, it is also referred to as gene migration, gene admixture, interbreeding, or gene exchange between populations. Almost always, gene flow refers to migration taking place primarily in one direction. It
The nation of Fiji contains a large group of islands known as an archipelago. Officially titled the Sovereign Democratic Republic of Fiji, the archipelago contains 330 islands that sprawl over 501,800 square miles in the world’s largest ocean, the Pacific. The people of Fiji inhabit about one third of the islands within the archipelago. The
Food is any substance that can be metabolized by an organism to give energy and build tissue. Foods are made up of a combination of calories, proteins, fats, minerals, and carbohydrates. Enzymes in the mouth begin to break down sugars as food is processed for digestion. Upon entering the stomach, the acids therein separate the
The sign, in terms first articulated by Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913), the Swiss linguist, has come to serve as the basic unit of approaches to communication that focus on meaning-making relations rather than on the effectiveness of senders’ communication of intended messages to designated receivers. Semiotic approaches have been taken up by general communication studies
Human skeletal remains of Late Pleistocene antiquity were recovered from several caves and open-air sites in Sri Lanka during the last half of the 20th century. Fa Hien Cave is one of the largest on this island nation and is situated in the southwestern lowland wet zone of Katutara District, Sabaragamuva Province. In 1968, human
A mask is a facial representation worn by performers and exists in a continuum with puppetry, which often represents the same characters (Harlequin, Punch, Devil, etc.). Emigh (1996, 3, 7) theorizes masks as “transitional objects” that bridge gaps through strategies of play and argues that though in the west the mask is “generally regarded as
The Nature of Evil The notion of evil is complex but usually involves some combination of or interplay between four basic categories, consisting of two sorts of effect and two sorts of cause or origin. The two sorts of effect are suffering and metaphysical evil, and the two sorts of cause are moral and natural
A code is a term in semiotics that designates a set of related signs or signifying practices that correspond to a system of meaning. While each sign has a unique signifier, what is signified is generally understood as a marker of difference within a larger group of signs. For instance, the number sign “2” has
The book is a durable vehicle for words and images and often is a central artifact in cultures with the written word. Those produced in the era before the advent of printing are unique “manuscript” books that were made by hand. The book became the first mass medium, and conventions for its presentation shaped those
In 1999 Professor Lawrence Lessig, then Berkman Professor for Entrepreneurial Legal Studies at Harvard Law School, later professor of law at Stanford Law School, opened his new book, Code and other laws of cyberspace, with a chapter entitled “Code is law.” This short but complex phrase has, since then, found itself at the heart of
Cuba is an island nation known for its beautiful tropical beaches, intoxicating musical rhythms, and rich cultural heritage and diversity. Some 90 miles off the coast of Florida Keys and the largest island in the Caribbean, Cuba is 48,800 square miles, or 110,860 sq km, just a bit smaller than the U.S. state of Louisiana.
In the broadest sense, cave art is identical to rock art. In a narrow sense, it is painting on cave walls, ceilings, remote and hard-to-reach places; it is defined as nonmobile or monumental in contrast to small transportable objects like statuettes, bone engravings, and so on. Origin and Evolution of Cave Art The earliest displays
Although the term sect has played a role in both political sociology and the study of social movements at the hands of many Marxians as well as such early sociologists as LeBon, Sighele, Park, and Simmel, its primary continuing application has been among sociologists of religion in the context of church-sect theory. The dominance of
A myth is a story that has a parallel structure linking the past to the present and suggesting directions for the future. A myth may be a cautionary tale, as in the urban myths that teenagers tell about the dangers inherent in parking on dark side roads. A myth may also be a moral tale
The term cult has become, since the latter part of the twentieth century, one of the most controversial concepts in the social sciences. The term was originally employed by scholars of religion to signify a system of activities centering on an object of worship, but the concept has been gradually changed by sociologists to identify
Hand axes are an artifact type most frequently associated with the Acheulean culture of the Lower Paleolithic or the Early Stone Age. Hand axes are large, bifacially flaked cores. Typically, they are ovate, tear-drop shaped, almandine, or circular, and range from 10 cm to 20 cm in length. Rarely, specimens may reach significantly larger size
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Biological anthropologists use the comparative perspective in their efforts to reconstruct human evolutionary history. As our closest living relatives, primates are often used to frame comparisons and to test hypotheses about various human features. A feature (behavioral, genetic, or anatomical) that appears in all primate species is at least initially assumed to also characterize the
A city is a relatively large, dense, permanent, heterogeneous, and politically autonomous settlement whose population engages in a range of nonagricultural occupations. Definitions of cities and their associated phenomena vary by time and place, and by population size, area, and function (Shryock, Siegel, and associates 1976, pp. 85-104). The city is often defined in terms
The one drop rule was a social construction that emerged discursively in US history. The language was first used by the government in the Fourteenth Census in 1920 when the color line was redefined by the Census Bureau. Instead of using the category “mulattoes,” the Bureau adopted the one drop rule. According to it, ”the
The purpose of fair play is to ensure that every competitor has an equal chance of being successful in any given competition. Fair play is supported by a philosophic belief that every player, team, official, and fan respects and honors (1) the rules of the game (constitutive, regulatory, and sportsmanship), (2) those who play the
The late 20th and early 21st centuries have seen a dramatic increase in the study of affect in organizations. The affective realm consists of state and trait affect, and there are many types of each. Mood is a transitory affective state that is relatively mild and long lasting. Different from other transitory affective states (i.e.
In the early 1980s, an unusual collection of clinical entities appeared that were characterized by aggressive opportunistic infections and malignancies in otherwise healthy individuals. These individuals also demonstrated a severe compromise of immune defense mechanisms. The disease was universally fatal. This complex syndrome of signs and symptoms was labeled as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Within
Race refers to a label that is commonly ascribed to individuals in certain societies based on their affiliation with a group of people. Members of racial groups typically share common characteristics in physical appearance or phenotype, but more significantly, they share a common stature within a given society. Although not widely regarded as such, many
Bias is defined as distortion of judgment or perception of a person or group based on the person’s or group’s race, religion, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, heritage, or ancestry, resulting in differential treatment in clinical work, diagnosis, and testing. The term bias has been used interchangeably with prejudice, specifically related to holding a distinct
HIV/AIDS, a global health crisis of immense significance, is explored comprehensively in this article. Beginning with an historical overview, it explores the etiology and modes of transmission, progressing to the pathophysiology of the disease. Part II delves into the clinical aspects of HIV/AIDS, covering diagnosis, clinical stages, and treatment. Part III shifts the focus to
Pica, a complex and enigmatic behavioral disorder characterized by the consumption of non-nutritive substances, has captured the attention of researchers and clinicians alike. This article delves into the world of Pica, examining its historical context, prevalence, and relevance in the field of psychology. Through a detailed exploration, the article elucidates the multifaceted etiology of Pica
Working at a time when few women were active as researchers, Anne Roe provided a different perspective on career choice and adjustment and is now credited as being the forerunner of a psychodynamic perspective. Roe was particularly interested in individual psychological differences between people and utilized research and statistical methods. From the 1930s, she engaged
This article delves into the multifaceted concept of time on task within the realm of school psychology. Beginning with a foundational exploration of its historical context and theoretical underpinnings, the article subsequently scrutinizes various methods for measuring time on task, while scrutinizing their strengths and limitations. Further, it sheds light on evidence-based interventions and strategies
Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss-German psychoanalyst who, with Sigmund Freud, was instrumental in ushering depth psychology (theories of the unconscious) into the 20th century. Jung was educated at the University of Zurich and as a young man he developed the concept of the autonomous, unconscious complex and the technique of free association, well before
Voir dire is a legal proceeding during which attorneys and/or judges question prospective jurors (called venirepersons) to determine their fitness for jury duty. The purpose of voir dire is to uncover bias; the procedure is designed to identify and eliminate members of the venire panel who are unable to be impartial and who do not
The Competence Assessment for Standing Trial for Defendants With Mental Retardation (CAST*MR) consists of 50 questions and was designed to assess defendants’ understanding of basic legal concepts, ability to assist their attorneys, and ability to relate important information regarding their own legal circumstances. Its purpose is to assist forensic evaluators in determining competency in defendants
The article on race in school psychology delves into the intricate dynamics of race and its profound impact on the field of school psychology. It explores how racial factors intersect with other demographic variables to shape students’ educational experiences and outcomes. This comprehensive discussion highlights the pivotal role of school psychologists in addressing racial disparities
Involuntary outpatient commitment is a form of civil commitment in which a court orders an individual to receive treatment and related services in a community setting. Nearly all states in the United States permit outpatient civil commitment, though the manner in which it occurs varies among the states. It is also used in other countries.
As recently as the mid-20th century, the U.S. public mental health system consisted largely of the state hospitals. These hospitals, originally constructed for the humane asylum and “moral treatment” of those deemed mentally ill, had evolved into overcrowded, understaffed, and inadequate responses to the general welfare burden of society. Since that time, there have been
In his or her social world, a person continually encounters collections of individuals in various social contexts. Sometimes a person perceives these other people to be a meaningful group; other times, as a mere aggregate of persons. What determines when a person sees other people as meaningful groups, and what are the consequences of perceiving
The Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument-Version 2 (MAYSI-2) is a brief, self-report screening tool designed to identify youths with special mental health needs in the juvenile justice system. It is not a diagnostic tool. Instead, it identifies emergent risks of youths in need of a comprehensive psychological assessment. The developers of the MAYSI-2 designed it for
Evidence of conflict and discrimination between groups is all around, which is not to say that this is inevitable, as many groups coexist peacefully most of the time. Ingroup bias refers to a form of favoritism toward one’s own group or derogation of another group. Many theories of intergroup relations in social psychology try to
Part of understanding how groups operate is understanding how the individual within the group looks at the group he or she belongs to. Once dividing the larger group into subgroups, one usually becomes more attached to one subgroup and sees the people in other groups as less distinct from one another. For example, at a
Outgroup Homogeneity Definition Outgroup homogeneity is the tendency for members of a group to see themselves as more diverse and heterogeneous than they are seen by an outgroup. Thus, for example, whereas Italians see themselves as quite diverse and different from one another, Americans view Italians as more similar to each other, or more alike.
The first kibbutz, a cooperative communal farming settlement called Degonia, was established in 1909 near the Sea of Galilee. It was followed in the 1920s by a number of variations on the basic model, and today there are more than 200 kibbutzim featuring a host of political and organizational characteristics and producing an array of
Rumors Definition Rumors are unverified information statements that people circulate to make sense of an unclear situation or to deal with a possible threat. Rumors are about issues or situations of topical interest. Rumors are like news except that news is accompanied by solid evidence; rumor is not. A classic example: “I heard that our
Subtyping Definition Subtyping refers to a process whereby people come to view individuals who don’t fit a stereotype as exceptions or as poor members of a group. The concept is important because it explains why people often do not change their stereotypes in the face of disconfirming information. Subtyping involves psychologically fencing off deviant group
Lead has been used by mankind for more than 6,000 years because of its resistance to corrosion, its low melting point, and, ironically, sometimes for its sweet taste. Therefore, it is one the most studied environmental toxins, and its toxicity has been known for more than 2,500 years. The major exogenous sources and associated pathways
Betrayal Definition Betrayal refers to situations in which individuals (victims) believe that a relationship partner (a perpetrator) has harmed them by knowingly violating a norm governing their relationship. In this context, norms refer to expectations about how the relationship partners should treat one another. Typical betrayals might involve witnessing a romantic partner flirt with somebody
A lesbian is a woman or girl who is sexually or romantically attracted to females, or who engages in same-sex behavior or relationships. The word lesbian was coined in the 17th century based on the Greek island of Lesbos, where the female poet Sappho wrote erotic poetry about love between women in the 7th century
Companionate Love Definition Companionate love refers to a variety of love that is durable, fairly slow to develop, and characterized by interdependence and feelings of affection, intimacy, and commitment. Companionate love is also known as affectionate love, friendship-based love, or attachment. Because it requires time to develop fully, this kind of love is often seen
Born in Somerset, England, John Locke was a noted philosopher and academician, political adviser, and physician. Educated as a child at the Westminster School, Locke endured an educational regimen that stressed strict adherence to rules, severe punishments, and rote memorization. Undoubtedly, Locke’s dissatisfaction with his education at Westminster was responsible, to a significant extent, for
Complementarity Definition Do birds of a feather flock together? Do opposites attract? These questions have been examined extensively within the domain of attraction, but less emphasis has been placed on the similarity versus complementarity in ongoing relationships. Complementarity means that partners are different in ways that enable them to fit or work together well. Many
In most normal, healthy children, the genetic potential is helped toward fulfillment by healthful, invigorating environmental conditions. The quality of children’s nutrition and health care strongly influences their development and the general quality of life they experience. Unfortunately, a majority of children in the world, and many of the children in the United States, receive
Although the marijuana, or cannabis, plant first appears in human history approximately 10,000 years ago, there is limited research that tells us about its role in human development. Indeed, this plant with hundreds of active chemicals when smoked remains a mystery to many, although with over hundreds of millions of people in the world having
Love Definition Love is often thought of as an intense and positive emotion that can be experienced for a variety of close others, including a romantic partner or spouse, close friends, children, parents, and other relatives. For more than three decades, social psychologists and other social scientists have been studying love. The type of love
Abraham Maslow pioneered and led the humanistic psychology movement. He was born in 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. The oldest of seven children from parents who immigrated to the United States from Russia, Maslow was quoted as describing his childhood as miserable and his family as unhappy and unloving. For Maslow, study and education provided
Awe Definition Awe refers to an intense emotional response people may have when they encounter an object, event, or person that is extraordinary. Things that elicit awe are typically vast in size, significance, or both. Frequent elicitors of awe include nature, natural disasters, grand architecture and historical ruins, supernatural or spiritual experiences, scientific or technological
Elevation Definition Novels, films, religious texts, and popular books often provoke a feeling in the viewer of being moved by the moral excellence of another person. Drawing upon Thomas Jefferson’s own analysis of this emotion, Jonathan Haidt has called this emotion elevation. According to Jefferson, elevation is the desire to perform acts of charity or
Embarrassment Definition Embarrassment is the emotion that results when social predicaments increase the threat of unwanted evaluations from real or imagined audiences. It occurs when people realize that they are making undesired impressions on others, and it usually strikes without warning when some misstep or abrupt change in fortune puts people in awkward situations. It
Jury deliberation begins when a trial ends and the jury moves to a secluded location to discuss the evidence and arrive at a decision. Understanding how juries reach their decisions is a prerequisite for answering the question of how well they serve their function in a democratic society. Jury deliberation has been studied empirically by
Juries have the implicit power to acquit defendants despite evidence and judicial instructions to the contrary. This power, called jury nullification, is embedded in the jury’s right to return a verdict by its own moral compass and has historically permitted sympathetic juries to acquit those whom the jurors perceive as legally guilty but morally upright.
Jury questionnaires are often used during the voir dire process to help judges and attorneys identify prospective jurors who are not suitable for jury service. Jury questionnaires typically include items dealing with hardship or medical issues that may make it difficult for some individuals to serve as jurors. Often, at the discretion of the court
Over the past 15 years, courts have begun implementing a host of reforms to the jury system in response to growing criticism about jurors’ competence to decide cases. Of particular concern was the ability of jurors to set aside preexisting biases and to understand increasingly complex evidence and legal principles. This article describes the efforts undertaken
Envy Definition Envy refers to the often-painful emotion caused by an awareness of an advantage enjoyed by another person. It is a complex, socially repugnant emotion made up of a mix of inferiority feelings, hostility, and resentment. Envy is different from admiration, which is delight and approval inspired by another person. Admiration can foster a
Fear Appeals Definition Fear appeals, or fear-arousing communications, are communications that emphasize negative consequences of specific behaviors to motivate behavior change. Fear-arousing communications usually consist of two parts, namely, a fear appeal that stresses the severity of, and personal vulnerability to, a threat and a recommended protective action capable of reducing or eliminating the threat.
Gratitude Definition People experience gratitude when they affirm that something good has happened to them and when they recognize that someone else is largely responsible for this benefit. The source of the benefit is often (but not always) another human. The benefit prompting a grateful response may be the absence of some negative event, as
Conditional release programs for persons acquitted by reason of insanity (not guilty by reason of insanity or NGRI) are designed to maximize public safety while meeting the courts’ mandate that some individual liberties be protected. These programs developed as a result of the state and federal court decisions in the 1960s, which required that this
Guilt Definition Guilt is a widely misunderstood emotion, having long suffered from an undeserved, bad reputation. The popular press abounds with articles offering advice on how to live a guilt-free life, many therapists identify guilt reduction as one of their short-term treatment goals, and no one wants to be regarded as a guilt-inducing mother. But
References to a concept of hope can be found throughout historical writings and across many different disciplines. Despite the frequency of discussions about hope, there is not one unified description or definition for the concept. Christian scholars frequently characterize hope as a virtue from God in which individuals are confident in receiving an eternal reward.
Hormone-replacement therapy (HRT) is a physician-prescribed program of treatment for women who are experiencing hormonal imbalances, during or after the occurrence of menopause. It usually refers to supplementing the body with the hormones estrogen and progesterone, which naturally decline during menopause, to treat the symptoms that follow. Estrogen is produced by the ovaries along with
Presentence evaluations are those assessments conducted prior to the sentencing stage of proceedings to assist the court in making an appropriate disposition. Individual differences in crimes, criminals, and circumstances justify the need for personalized sentences in each case. Mental health professionals, probation officers, and social workers are among those in the forensic field called on
The hot flash is a sudden sensation of heat typically experienced by women during their menopausal years, although they have been reported among young women during various phases of the menstrual cycle. Flashes (also called flushes) are the most common complaint of women in the menopause transition. The heat sensation generally begins in the chest
Hope Definition A typical dictionary definition of hope suggests that it reflects a goal-related expectation of success. In psychology, a definition that has gained considerable attention basically expands on this dictionary one. More specifically, hope is said to involve goal-directed thinking in which people perceive that they have the capacities to produce the routes to
Huntington’s disease (HD) is an inherited brain disorder named for Dr. George Huntington, who first described this disorder in 1872. HD is now recognized as one of the more common genetic disorders. HD currently affects 30,000 Americans, and nearly 250,000 more are at risk for this disease. At present, there is no known cure. This
The Mayo Clinic reports that about 4,000 infants in the United States are born with hydrocephalus, and an estimated 6,000 children develop hydrocephalus during the first 2 years of life. The mechanics of hydrocephalus are interesting. The spinal cord and the brain are cushioned or protected from jarring injury by the systemic flow of cerebrospinal
Jealousy Definition Jealousy is an unpleasant emotion that arises when one perceives that some important aspect of one’s relationship with another, or the relationship itself, is being threatened by someone else (a rival). For example, a person is likely to experience jealousy if his or her romantic partner appears to be emotionally or sexually interested
The id (Latin for “that thing”) is present at birth and developmentally is the oldest of the three psychological structures proposed by Sigmund Freud as part of the mind. According to Freud, neither the ego nor the superego is active or even formed so early in the individual’s development, when the id serves as the
Super-maximum secure or “supermax” prisons are used to hold those prisoners whom prison authorities regard as the most problematic in the prison system. These facilities merge the 19th-century practice of long-term solitary confinement with 21st-century technology in ways that subject prisoners to unparalleled levels of isolation, surveillance, and control, usually for long duration, with the
Frances Lillian Ilg, MD, was born in Oak Park, Illinois. A pediatrician and professor at Yale, Ilg was a pioneering scholar in infant and child development and cofounder and first director (1950) of the Gesell Institute of Child Development (now the Gesell Institute of Human Development) and recipient of the Snow award for Distinguished Service
Regret Definition Regret is the negative emotion that people experience when realizing or imagining that their present situation would have been better had they decided or acted differently. Regret thus originates in a comparison between outcomes of a chosen option and the non-chosen alternatives in which the latter outperforms the former. This painful emotion reflects
Shame Definition Shame is one of the most overlooked emotions, at least among individuals residing in Western cultures. Feelings of shame can have a profound effect on one’s level of psychological adjustment and one’s relationships with others, but these feelings nonetheless often go undetected. People rarely speak of their shame experiences. Denial and a desire
Surprise Definition Surprise is the sense of astonishment, wonder, or amazement that is caused by something sudden or unexpected. The experience of surprise varies with the importance of the outcome, as well as beliefs about the outcome. Some formalists have offered mathematical definitions of surprise (i.e., a comparison of Bayesian priors and posteriors), but there
Brainstorming Definition Brainstorming is a widely used method to stimulate creativity in problem solving. In a structured session, people (usually in a group) generate as many creative ideas as possible. Social psychologists have mainly studied whether it is more effective to brainstorm in a group or alone, and have come to the counterintuitive conclusion that
Immunization is a procedure routinely used to improve the body’s ability to overcome infection and protect against diseases caused by infectious agents. It works against a specific disease by training the immune system to rapidly recognize and eliminate the infectious agent that causes that disease, thus resulting in immunity. Protection can be acquired either by
In contrast to altricial animals, precocial species must be able to walk within a short time after birth. However, this ability may result in wandering away from the safety of the mother. Newly hatched domestic fowl, ducks, geese, quail, ungulates, and guinea pigs are precocial. These young animals are dependent on the mother for food
Crowding Definition Environmental psychologists study how human behavior and the physical environment interrelate. Decision making and behavior make an impact on environmental quality—did you walk, bike, drive, or use public transit to get to school today? The physical environment also affects behavior. Crowding illustrates how the physical environment can affect human behavior. Psychologists distinguish between
Deindividuation Definition Deindividuation theory was developed to explain the violence and irrationality of the crowd. How does a group of seemingly normal individuals become an unruly mob? According to deindividuation theory, the anonymity and excitement of the crowd make individuals lose a sense of individual identity. As a result, crowd members cease to evaluate themselves
Urinary incontinence is a condition that occurs when there is involuntary loss of urine from the bladder. It is estimated that more than 17 million Americans are affected, women more commonly than men (38% versus 19%). Costs related to medical care, sanitary products, and pharmaceutical agents top $28 billion per year. Urinary incontinence occurs across
Infancy ranges in age from the moment of birth to about 2 years of age when the young child begins to use words to make sentences. In fact, the word “infant” means literally “one who is unable to speak.” Infancy is unique in that it is the earliest stage of life outside of the womb
Infanticide is the killing of an infant or young child(ren) by a parent or stepparent; however, specific terminology varies with the age of the victim. Murders occurring within 24 hours of birth are referred to as neonaticides. Those committed after the first 24 hours but prior to 1 year of life are labeled as infanticide.
Sexual offenders do great societal damage that causes justifiable public concern. Over the past 10 years, psychology has developed the ability to reliably classify male sexual offenders as low, moderate, and high risk for sexual recidivism (Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool-Revised, Risk Matrix-2000, Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism, and STATIC-99) based on historical
The STATIC-99 and the STATIC-2002 are actuarial instruments that predict sex offender recidivism. They were designed to be widely applicable risk scales for the prediction of sexual recidivism that could be scored using commonly available file information from forensic settings such as prisons and forensic hospitals. Actuarial instruments for sex offender re-offense categorize sexual offenders
The Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY), developed by Randy Borum, Patrick Bartel, and Adelle Forth, is a risk assessment instrument designed to structure appraisals of violence risk and risk management plans for adolescents. Such assessments are routinely required by juvenile and criminal courts and at nearly every juncture of the juvenile justice
Fast and Frugal Heuristics Definition Fast and frugal heuristics, as defined by Gerd Gigerenzer, Peter M. Todd, and the ABC Research Group, are simple, task-specific decision strategies that are part of a decision maker’s repertoire of cognitive strategies for solving judgment and decision tasks. Fast and frugal heuristics are simple to execute because they limit
Free will is a controversial idea in social psychology. Researchers have begun to talk about it and study it, including ordinary people’s beliefs about it, but there are many social psychologists who insist that all such beliefs are mistaken. As a field of scientific research, social psychology is almost certainly unable to prove whether free
Funerals are the most commonly recognized bereavement ritual linked to death loss. Bereavement rituals can prove helpful for individuals by offering a way to acknowledge the death, remember the deceased, or understand and openly express feelings. These rituals afford the opportunity to say goodbye and form a new relationship with the deceased. Despite the many
Grim Necessities Definition Grim necessities are activities with short-term negative consequences but long-term positive payoffs. For example, reading a boring textbook is unpleasant in the short term but rewarding in the long term, because it helps you get a good grade on the exam. Other commonly listed grim necessities are working at a boring job
Hindsight Bias Definition Recollection or reevaluation of past events can be affected by what has happened since. In particular, once people know the outcome of an event, they tend to overestimate what could have been anticipated in foresight. This effect has been termed hindsight bias or the knew-it-all-along effect. Designs, Materials, and Measures of Hindsight
A gamete is a cell containing half the amount of genetic material found in a somatic (body) cell that is capable of joining with another gamete and developing into a new individual. In this sense, the joined gametes (zygote) form the earliest stem cell since this one cell will go on to form a completely
Although the exact origin of the term gateway drug remains uncertain, the use of the term seems to have accelerated sharply in the early to mid-1980s in conjunction with the U.S. “war on drugs.” The notion that the use of certain substances tends to precede the use of other substances, however, predates the widespread use
Loss Aversion Definition Loss aversion refers to people’s tendency to prefer avoiding losses to acquiring gains of equal magnitude. In other words, the value people place on avoiding a certain loss is higher than the value of acquiring a gain of equal size. Consider, for instance, the subjective value of avoiding a loss of $10
The concept of the generation gap is one that has become part of our cultural vernacular. Reputedly coined by renowned anthropologist Margaret Mead, the simplest definition of the concept is the differentiation (or gap) of values, attitudes, or behaviors between members of an older generation and a younger generation. Typically, the concept of the generation
The term genotype refers to the specific genetic makeup, unique genetic constitution, or hereditary “blueprint” of an organism. An individual’s genotype is his or her genetic identity. A genotype can mean the full complement of genes that an organism possesses, or it can refer to the DNA bases at only one position in the genome.
Overconfidence Definition Overconfidence refers to the phenomenon that people’s confidence in their judgments and knowledge is higher than the accuracy of these judgments. To investigate this effect, the subjective judgment of confidence in the correctness of a set of answers is compared with the objective accuracy of these answers. In a typical study on overconfidence
Giftedness can be conceived as unusually high ability or potential in any domain. Views of giftedness are culturally shaped, and society deems which domains are recognized, valued, and nurtured. Historically, the term gifted was primarily applied to high intellectual abilities, although it has also been applied to high ability in areas such as the arts.
Multigenerational families have increased in number because of the extended life span of individuals. This increased longevity also has led to an increase in the number of older adults in our communities. Census reports of the past decade identify adults age 85 and older as the fastest growing population group. There has been an approximate
The Gray Panthers is a national organization founded in 1970 by social activist and educator Maggie Kuhn in response to insidious ageism within American culture. Ageism is the negative stereotyping, stigmatization, and segregation of people based on age. Through the national organization and coordination of local networks, the Gray Panthers functions as an intergenerational advocacy
Risk Taking Definition When people take risks, they engage in behaviors that could lead to negative consequences such as physical injury, social rejection, legal troubles, or financial losses. Behaviors that are more likely to lead to such outcomes are considered riskier than behaviors that are less likely to lead to such outcomes. Regardless of the
Satisficing Definition Satisficing refers to making a decision with the goal of satisfying or fulfilling some acceptable minimum requirement (instead of choosing the best option). Decision makers who adopt a satisficing strategy do not evaluate all the available alternatives. Instead, they accept the first “good enough” option that they encounter. Satisficing is thought to be
Inspired by cognitive dissonance theory, hundreds of experiments have demonstrated that following a difficult decision, compared with an easy one, individuals change their attitudes to be more consistent with their decisions. That is, following a decision, individuals evaluate the chosen alternative more positively and the rejected alternative more negatively than they did before the decision.
Sunk Cost Definition Sunk cost refers to money, time, or effort that has already been spent on a particular endeavor and that cannot be recovered. Economic principles dictate that sunk costs should not be considered when making decisions about whether to continue one’s present course of action or to divert resources elsewhere. Such decisions rationally
Hemophilia is a blood disorder characterized by unusually low levels of clotting factor, which prevents normal blood coagulation. As a result, people with hemophilia bleed for longer periods of time but not at a faster than normal rate. It is a recessive genetic disorder that is carried on the X chromosome, and so it affects
Heterosexuality is ubiquitous to modern Western sensibilities. It is often seen as the natural, timeless, and logical arrangement of the mating pair bond. For most people, trying to describe the role of heterosexuality in life is like trying to describe walking upright or using opposable thumbs; you never really think about it until it is
Affect-as-Information Definition How do we know whether or not we approve of some action or like some person? According to the affect-as-information hypothesis, our feelings provide such information. Just as our smiles and frowns provide information about our reactions to others, our positive and negative feelings provide such information to our-selves. Like many psychological processes
Eileen Mavis Hetherington is Professor of Psychology, Emeritus, at the University of Virginia. Her distinguished career of more than 50 years is highlighted by contributions to research on childhood psychopathology, personality and social development, and stress and coping, but she is perhaps best known for her work on the effects of divorce and remarriage on
Tremendous advances in medical technologies and the emergence of neonatology as a medical specialty have led to the increase in the number of surviving high-risk infants. The developmental status of these children is of great concern to a wide range of professionals. Special educators, school psychologists, developmental psychologists, early childhood educators, and speech and language
Ambivalence Definition People like some things yet dislike others, love some people but hate others, and sometimes feel happy and other times sad. From this perspective, feelings— generally referred to as affect, which includes such phenomena as attitudes, emotions, and moods—work in much the same way as temperature. Just as temperature falls along a simple
Brainwashing Definition Brainwashing is a term that was adopted by the press to describe the indoctrination of U.S. prisoners of war (POWs) during the Korean War. Social scientists now recognize brainwashing as a form of severe indoctrination marked by physical and psychological stress, intense social pressure, and a variety of persuasion techniques. This form of
The “empty nest” refers to the physical and psychological change in the family when a child leaves home or goes away to college. For about 18 years, parents have invested themselves in the emotionally consuming process of raising a family—and suddenly one day the children leave home. As the nest empties, a chapter of parenting
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that disrupt the normal functioning of hormonal systems or the balance of hormones. There are currently no standardized tests to determine whether or not a chemical should be classed as an endocrine disruptor. Chemicals that alter either the levels of estrogens, androgens, or thyroid hormones or the body’s response to them
Epilepsy is a medical condition characterized by spontaneous recurrent seizures. Seizures are brief neurological symptoms resulting from abnormal discharge or “firing” of neural brain cells in the cerebral cortex. Neurons normally transmit information by firing a single short discharge that is conducted from one neuron to another. Seizures result when the discharge is prolonged or
Equilibration—the process of finding equilibrium or balance—is Piaget’s explanation for how learning grows. Individuals try to balance their present understandings with new events or data they encounter that conflict with what they know, while attempting to maintain stability. When individuals encounter something foreign to their learning structures, the imbalance created is restored through equilibration. Piaget
Erik Erikson was born near Frankfurt, Germany, and went on to make several important contributions to the field of life span development. After graduating from high school, Erikson traveled around Europe and studied art in Germany. At the age of 25, he was invited to Vienna to teach children whose parents were studying with Sigmund
Estrogen is a generic term for a class of steroid hormones that includes 17β-estradiol, estrone, and estriol. Estrogens are synthesized from the hormone testosterone by the enzyme aromatase. Although both men and women produce estrogens, women have more of the aromatase enzyme, so they produce much more estrogens than men. Estrogens are produced in the
Forensic psychology education requires both didactic and experiential training components. Didactic courses are necessary because they provide the intensive opportunity to acquire the scientific and practice knowledge base underlying forensic psychology. Simply apprenticing under a practitioner might lead to a narrow perception of what forensics entails and a skill set that is limited to what that
Authenticity Definition Authenticity generally reflects the extent to which an individual’s core or true self is operative on a day-to-day basis. Psychologists characterize authenticity as multiple interrelated processes that have important implications for psychological functioning and well-being. Specifically, authenticity is expressed in the dynamic operation of four components: awareness (i.e., self-understanding), unbiased processing (i.e., objective
The term euthanasia often elicits a variety of responses from individuals. The reactions may be related to one’s understanding of what euthanasia is, one’s experience with end-of-life decision making, one’s religious or spiritual belief system, or any number of other factors. This review will attempt to clarify some of the definitions associated with different types
Ego Depletion Definition Ego depletion refers to the loss of a personal resource (and associated breakdown in performance) due to the previous exertion of self-control or other effortful and willful acts of the self. Ego depletion may be especially important in understanding why self-control fails and what the processes are that underlie self-control. The model
Alfred Kinsey sent shockwaves though American society in 1948 when he reported that about half of all married men had sex with someone other than their wives during their married life. In 1953, Kinsey reported that about a quarter of women had extramarital sex by their 40s. Although Kinsey’s sampling methods have been questioned, other
Habits Definition Habits are learned dispositions to repeat past responses. They develop because many behavioral sequences (e.g., one’s morning coffee-making routine) are performed repeatedly in essentially the same context and in much the same order. When responses and context cues repeatedly occur together, the potential exists for associations to form between these various elements. Once
The Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism, abbreviated as the RRASOR (pronounced like the cutting tool), is an actuarial scale designed to assess different levels of sexual recidivism risk for convicted sexual offenders. This scale was the first empirically validated actuarial instrument specifically designed for the assessment of sexual offense recidivism. As such, it
During the prenatal period, a human develops from a single cell to a complex array of living tissues and structures. Every experience a prenatal organism has, and every substance it encounters, can potentially alter the course of development. This period of dramatic changes sets the stage for postnatal outcomes, from birth to death. The longest
To have an experience is not necessarily to know that one is having it. Situations such as suddenly realizing that one has not been listening to one’s spouse (despite nodding attentively) or catching oneself shouting, “I’m not angry,” illustrate that people sometimes fail to notice what is going on in their own heads. The intuition
This article is divided into three parts. In the first part we consider the historical background of the development of firearms, in particular the invention of gunpowder and its effect on social structures, particularly in Europe. In the second part we examine the nature of firearms and the categories that relate to their design and
Procrastination Definition Procrastination refers to wasting time before a deadline. The tendency to procrastinate involves putting off work that must be completed to attain a certain goal, such as watching television instead of working on a term paper. Procrastination has a negative impact on the quality of one’s work and is linked to a variety
John Flavell is credited with introducing the work of Piaget to American psychology and founding the field of metacognition. Flavell is a preeminent figure in modern developmental psychology. Born in Rockville, Massachusetts, he was educated at Northeastern and then earned a PhD in clinical psychology at Clark University. There, he was introduced to Heinz Werner’s
Zeal Definition The term zeal came into common usage in reference to a sect of 1st-century-c.E. religious fanatics who were uncompromising in their opposition to Roman rule. Some of them carried daggers under their cloaks and killed anyone who did not fully support their views. Such extremism brought reprisals that ultimately crushed their sect. Accordingly
Dieting is the purposeful restriction of food intake as a means of losing weight, experiencing health benefits, and/or avoiding medical complications associated with excessive weight. Dieting is typically characterized by restrictive eating, where certain foods are limited or avoided entirely. Most diet plans are based on reducing any of the body’s macronutrients, such as fats
Although an inadequate number of sperm contributes to approximately a third of all infertility, there had been little, if any, effective treatment for low sperm counts until the introduction of intracytoplasmic sperm injection in the late 1990s. As a result, the insemination of women with the sperm of anonymous donors, known as donor insemination (DI)
Drunken driving motor vehicle crashes remain a leading cause of death and injury to people in the United States. In fact, motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death among people 16 to 24 years of age, and a substantial percentage are alcohol-related crashes. There were 17,419 alcohol-related automobile deaths in 2002, representing one
The term “ego” is today in common usage. People use the term “ego” in a variety of ways. Because the word is in everyday usage, people assume they know what it means. However, a word such as ego varies in the ways in which it can be used. As Wittgenstein sought to explain, we can
Date Rape Definition Date rape refers to forced sexual intercourse without consent that is perpetrated by someone familiar to the victim, usually an acquaintance or date. Although date rape can be perpetrated by women, the typical date rape occurs when a man uses physical or psychological intimidation to force a woman to have intercourse against
During the third major developmental stage described by Freud, called the phallic stage, the child’s psychic energy is invested in the genital organs and the pleasure that is received through organ manipulation. It is also during this period that some of the most profound psychological changes in the child’s personality development take place. As children
Electroencephalogram (EEG) is a recording of the continuous electrical activity of the brain made by electrodes positioned on the scalp. It has many applications for clinical practice and both basic and applied research. The science of recording, analyzing, and interpreting EEG is part of a larger science called psychophysiology, which has its roots in both
During the 46-day embryo stage, the embryo grows to a length of more than 1 inch (2.5 cm). By the end of the embryo stage, many body systems will be in operation and the embryo will begin to appear humanlike. The embryo takes nourishment and oxygen and releases waste products through the umbilical cord, which
Albert Ellis first demonstrated and introduced his innovative rational-emotive therapy (RET) in 1957. In 1993, Ellis revised and expanded the scope of his theory, creating rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). REBT resulted from Ellis’s response to the frustration he experienced as a psychoanalyst when his patients were not improving using traditional psychoanalytic techniques. Ellis found
Rape occurs when one individual forces another into sexual intercourse against his or her will. Other instances in which one of the individuals participates in sexual acts without fully consenting to them (e.g., unwanted kissing) are encompassed within the more general term sexual coercion. Males are much more frequently than females the perpetrators of rape
Reframing is a technique used by counselors to shift a client’s view of a particular problem, event, or person. It is based on the assumption that when clients are able to view a situation from another perspective, opportunities for finding alternative, acceptable solutions to their problems increase. The effectiveness of reframes in therapy is documented
While the majority of older adults live in independent, free-standing housing throughout their lives, advanced age necessarily increases the likelihood that an individual will benefit from an enriched supportive living environment. Congregate housing responds to the needs of persons 65 years and older who wish to have a limited set of support services available to
Conscience is the set of faculties that allows one to participate in the social world by balancing one’s needs and desires with those of others. Conscience is evident in behavior that is consistent with an individual’s own moral standards. Often, at the core of these standards is a value of the rights and welfare of
The onset of crawling is a major milestone in infant motor development that also heralds a dramatic and pervasive set of changes in psychological functioning. Crawling represents the culmination of a long and complex struggle to overcome and then exploit the effects of gravity from the prone position. Once acquired, independent mobility offers many new
Crying is not just the sound of a fussy baby or a bothersome noise. It is a direct and effective way that the young child communicates. For preverbal children, crying is definitely language. Crying is an important part of the infant’s earliest communication system that is used to convey various demands and needs, such as
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a recessive hereditary disease that causes the mucous glands in the lungs and digestive tract to secrete unusually thick and sticky mucus. Instead of acting as a lubricant, these secretions clog the lungs and prohibit the pancreas from working efficiently, resulting in a number of secondary illness characteristics. CF affects approximately
As the population of the United States shifted from rural, agrarian, or farming living arrangements to those of more urban and industrial conditions starting in the middle of the 19th century, men saw their role as parent transformed by employment demands that pulled them away from the home. Instead of holding a central role as
The word deafness encompasses the state of not hearing. Prevalence estimates indicate that roughly 34 million adults representing approximately 17% of the United States report having a hearing loss. Within this group, the number of adults with severe to profound hearing loss ranges from 464,000 to 738,000, with approximately 54% being older than 65 years
In a scientific experiment, a researcher investigates whether changes in one or more independent variables have an effect on one or more dependent variables. A dependent variable is what is assessed as an outcome or effect of the study. It is a variable because the measure can take on some range of values. It is
The three longitudinal studies that constitute the Intergenerational Studies (IGS) of the Institute of Human Development (IHD) were initiated in the late 1920s, and the study members represent two birth cohorts: people born in Berkeley in 1928–1929 and people entering an Oakland middle school in 1932 (born in 1920–1921). Data were collected from and about
In its strictest definition, childlessness occurs when people do not biologically bear children. However, this definition is limited and fails to address the complex psychosocial factors that contribute to its causes and consequences. Most people are childless for large segments of their life and actively pursue not getting pregnant or having children. In this context
Noam Chomsky is cofounder of the Department of Philosophy and Linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and a seminal figure in 20th-century linguistics, anarchism, and radical politics. He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1928 to William, foremost Hebrew grammarian, and Elsie (née Simonofsky), a Hebrew teacher also involved with Zionism, the Hebrew
Chromosomes are large pieces of DNA that contain genes, other sequences of DNA, and associated proteins. Genes code for traits, and many of the additional sequences and associated proteins, are used to organize and to regulate the expression of the genes. A typical human cell contains 46 chromosomes, which if stretched out and laid end
Circadian rhythms refer to regular or rhythmic variations in biological and behavioral measures approximately (“circa”) on a 24-hour or daily (“dian”) timing basis. Virtually all biological and behavioral measures taken over time show circadian rhythms. For example, core body temperature normally reaches its highest value in the early evening and lowest value between 4 and
Circumcision is the surgical removal of the foreskin from the penis and is practiced by Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Circumcision was practiced by Egyptians in antiquity and is now prevalent among many African tribes. Among Jews, circumcision is performed on the 8th day after birth and is also required of male proselytes as an
As we traverse the path from birth to death, chronological age (CA) provides a simple and convenient signpost for all that happens along the way. Birthdays have assumed the form of a personal holiday for almost everyone, marked with pleasure in the earlier stages of life, and often with regret and ill humor in the
Cocaine is a frequently used central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that enhances energy and mood. It is also a dangerous drug of abuse, the subject of much regulatory legislation, and a major target of the “war on drugs.” History Cocaine is a naturally occurring substance found in the shrub Erythroxylon coca that grows in the
Hearing impairment is a common disorder, affecting many children and adults. Its severity varies widely among individuals. Mild loss of hearing sensitivity can almost always be treated effectively by acoustic hearing aids. These devices electronically amplify weak sounds to enable people with hearing loss to hear most sounds comfortably. However, sometimes the degree of impairment
A cohort refers to a group of individuals who have common characteristics such as age, experience, location, or generation. Historically, the term was used to describe a Roman military unit. Currently, the term is used more loosely, and the grouping characteristics of a cohort can be quite varied. The most typical type of cohort in
Colic and colicky apply to crying behaviors in otherwise healthy infants who, despite their caregivers’ attempts at soothing, cry inconsolably. Colic has been defined as inconsolable or excessive infant crying for which no physical cause can be found and which lasts a minimum of 3 hours of total crying per day, at least 3 days
Babbling is the stage of language development during which children produce speech sounds arranged in nonsensical combinations, such as “bababa,” “deedeedee,” or “badegubu.” All normally developing children babble. Parents and family members may view babbling as an endearing but trivial behavior produced by infants; however, babbling represents a stage of language development during which the
Baby Boomers have had a tremendous impact on 20th century history and culture. Baby Boomers are defined as anyone born between 1946 and 1964. In the United States, nearly 30% of the population constitutes Boomers. The increased birthrate in the post–World War II era also impacted Canada, where the generation is known as “boomies.” In
Babies learn to speak by listening to their caretakers. People help them by modulating the sounds of speech in fundamentally the same way. A topic of much speculation among researchers who study language acquisition is the observation that caretakers consistently address their infants in this unique tone and manner of voice, a form that has
Bar Mitzvah means “son of commandment,” a rather elliptical term connoting that a young Jewish male has reached the age of majority, and thus become obligated to perform ritual commandments. A child reaching Bar Mitzvah age may be counted toward the 10 adults required for a prayer quorum. A similar term—Bat Mitzvah—is used for Jewish
Diana Blumberg Baumrind is considered to be among the foremost experts on parenting in the United States. She has also had a distinguished career as an academic researcher and commentator on the role of ethics and understanding of research findings. She has been awarded multiple national grants over a 40-year career devoted to family socialization
The term bisexual can be used to refer either to people’s sexual behavior or to their sexual identity. This distinction is made because behavior and self-selected labels do not always correspond. The prefix “bi” literally means two and is therefore used to refer to the dualistic nature of attraction to or sexual behavior with members
Body mass index (BMI) is a measure of human physical fitness that is designed to provide a standard metric for evaluating individuals’ weight, relative to their height. Specifically, BMI is calculated as weight divided by height (squared), as shown below. As such, BMI can be thought of as the ratio of weight to height, per
Edward John Mostyn Bowlby is, together with Mary Ainsworth, the founder of attachment theory. In this theory, Bowlby tried to explain the way in which infants establish ties with their mothers or caregivers, and he explored the emotional consequences of disrupted ties. Bowlby grew up in a typical upper-middle-class family in London. His father, a
T. Berry Brazelton’s role as researcher, clinician, and advocate for parents has been one of the formative influences in pediatrics in the United States for over 50 He was born in Waco, Texas, on May 10, 1918, and graduated from Princeton in 1940. In 1943 he graduated from the Columbia University College of Physicians and
Urie Bronfenbrenner is the Jacob Gould Sherman Professor of Human Development and Family Studies and Psychology at Cornell University and was one of the founders of Head Start. Bronfenbrenner was born in Moscow and came to the United States when he was 6 years old. He received his bachelor’s degree from Cornell University in 1938
Perhaps the most eminent living psychologist, Bruner has made an incomparable contribution to our understanding of cognitive development in a career spanning 60 years. His erudite writings, which draw on anthropology, philosophy, and literary theory among other fields, have inspired several generations of developmentalists. Born in New York City, Bruner was educated at Duke (BA
Alleles are variant forms of a particular gene. Each person carries two copies of each gene (one from their mother and one from their father). They may have two exact copies of a particular gene, or their two copies may vary from each other. The varied forms of a particular gene are called alleles. Sometimes
Allergies affect millions of people in the United States and include environmental allergies to pollen, animals, foods, different chemicals, and certain manmade substances. Allergic responses occur when the body reacts to normally innocuous substances in the environment as it would to toxins. The body reads the allergen as an intruder, and the immune system is
Currently, amphetamines (AMP) and methamphetamines (MA) are among the most widely abused illicit drugs in the world, second only to marijuana. More than 35 million individuals worldwide use and abuse AMP or MA on a regular basis (as compared with cocaine, which is used by about 15 million people, and heroin, used by fewer than
Assessment and diagnosis of an individual’s problems and concerns represent important precursors to effective counseling. In order to help someone, the counselor must formulate an accurate appraisal of the problems to be targeted in the counseling process. Using diagnostic interviews and psychological tests, mental health professionals hope to develop an accurate diagnosis of the client
Temporal Construal Theory Definition Temporal construal theory is a general theoretical framework that describes the effects of psychological distance on thinking, decision making, and behavior. Psychologically distant objects and events are those beyond one’s direct experience of the here and now and can be distant on a number of dimensions: time, space, social distance (self
Threatened Egotism Theory Definition The threatened egotism theory of aggression states that violence is related to a highly favorable view of the self, combined with an ego threat. This theory does not suggest that high self-esteem necessarily causes violence or that there is any direct relationship between self-esteem and violence. Furthermore, although there is evidence
Apnea is a brief pause in one’s breathing pattern. When it occurs for extended periods or frequently during sleep, it may be a cause for concern. Pauses of 20 seconds five or more times per hour in adults indicate the presence of sleep apnea syndrome, whereas the syndrome is diagnosed when pauses of 10 seconds
Arterioscle r osi s is the scientific term used to describe what is commonly referred to as “hardening of the arteries.” The process most often responsible for this transformation is atherosclerosis, arterial hardening due to the deposition of fat, calcium, cellular debris, and other substances within the arterial wall. Because of its greater specificity, the
Falsification Definition One cannot prove whether a theory or hypothesis is true. One can only prove that it is false, a process called falsification. Falsification is a tool that distinguishes scientific social psychology from folk social psychology, which does not use the process of falsification. Falsification History and Theory From the beginning of the 20th
Few aspects of Western culture touch as many people or command as much attention as athletics. Historically, athletics helped shape the beliefs, values, and behavior of many societies. The Greeks, for example, created the Olympic games to celebrate cultural, artistic, and individual excellence. Athletic training was part of every Greek boy’s education and was intended
LISREL (LInear Structural RELations modeling) was one of the first statistical computer packages used for structural equation modeling. Created by Karl Joreskog and Dag Sorbom, it remains one of the most popular programs for such analyses, although numerous other programs exist, including EQS, Proc Calis within SAS, and Amos. As with all structural modeling programs
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is a psychotherapy approach used to process distressing memories that are the basis of a wide range of clinical complaints. Comprehensive treatment includes attention to past, present, and future not only to address overt symptoms but also to increase attributes associated with a positive quality of life. Eye movement
Person-job (PJ) fit is defined as the compatibility between individuals and the job or tasks that they perform at work. This definition includes compatibility based on employee needs and job supplies available to meet those needs, as well as job demands and employee abilities to meet those demands. In the past, the term PJ fit
There has been considerable professional debate, in the United States and elsewhere, regarding the precise nature of the functions and roles fulfilled by counselors, therapists, psychotherapists, and others who provide mental health services. Professionals using different names, such as counseling psychologist, counselor, and therapist, are viewed quite differently by the lay public. Much of the
One reflection of the explosion of technology in our lives is the increasing use of technology for delivering counseling and psychotherapy as well as other psychoeducational interventions. An individual can use the Internet to locate a counselor, to gain information about psychological conditions and treatments, to obtain counseling, and to share with others in chat
Professional practice based on reliable and valid empirical findings of effectiveness—empirically based professional practice (EBPP)—has increasingly influenced the work of mental health practitioners over the past two decades. The appeal of EBPP is based on the conviction that using evidence-based assessments and treatments in preference to those without empirical support makes sense, because EBPPs have
Facilitative conditions are those conditions or counselor attitudes that enhance the therapeutic relationship and are conducive to successful outcomes in counseling and psychotherapy. The three primary facilitative conditions were first suggested by Carl R. Rogers in his 1951 publication on the person-centered counseling approach. These conditions are unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy. According to
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive method of activating regions of the brain by small electric currents generated by a magnetic pulse. Over the last 25 years, TMS has become an integral technique for studying brain function in humans in both healthy and diseased states and is a valid and reliable technique for investigating
A motor phenomenon affecting golfers, the yips consist of involuntary movements during the performance of shots requiring fine motor control, such as chipping and putting. Although the yips are mainly reported by golfers, the psychological characteristics of a small group of cricket bowlers who experience yips-like symptoms have also been reported, suggesting the condition is
Coordination is something we all take for granted— at least until it breaks down under extreme stress (as it does sometimes in competition) or following an insult or disease to the brain, or even when body parts are injured or replaced. So to understand coordination scientifically, we must somehow make the familiar strange—akin perhaps to
Acupuncture is the medical practice of inserting needles into specific acupoints for the purpose of treating disease. Acupuncture is part of a larger body of eastern health care that includes herbal pharmacy, moxibustion, electrostimulation, massage, fitness exercises including Tai Qi and Qi Gong, meditation, and dietary habits. Each of these features of eastern health care
Reductionism Definition Reductionism means that complex principles can be reduced to simpler or more fundamental principles. Social psychologists often oppose reductionism and emphasize instead the social context that surrounds the individual. There are two basic types of reductionism: psychological and methodological. Psychological Reductionism One can often identify reductionism with the mind-body problem, which is the
Robert N. Butler first introduced the term ageism to refer to prejudice and discrimination against older people based on the belief that aging makes people less attractive, intelligent, sexual, and productive. Ageism comprises three distinguishable yet interconnected aspects: (1) prejudicial attitudes toward older adults, old age, and the aging process; (2) discriminatory practices that focus
Mary Dinsmore Salter was born on December 1, 1913, in Glendale, Ohio, but grew up in Toronto, Canada. As a psychology student at the University of Toronto, she became drawn to William Blatz’s “security theory,” which inspired her dissertation, completed in 1939. After a stint as instructor at the University of Toronto, Mary entered the
According to the nonprofit resource center Class Action, classism can be defined as the systematic assignment of characteristics of worth and ability based on social class and the systematic oppression of subordinated groups (people without endowed or acquired economic power, social influence, and privilege) by the dominant groups (those who have access to control of
The concept of oppression has been written about by scholars and educators in various fields. Oppression has been defined as a system that allows access to the services, rewards, benefits, and privileges of society based on membership in a particular group. Oppression involves the abuse of power whereby a dominant group engages in unjust, harsh
The major Stoic philosophers were Zeno of Citium (Cyprus), who lived between 336 and 265 BCE, Cleanthes (c. 331-232 BCE) and Chrysippus (c. 280-206 BCE), both from Asia Minor. Later Stoics of the Christian era include Seneca (c. 4 BCE-65 CE), Epictetus (c. 50-138 CE), and Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180 CE). Epicurus (341-270 BCE) was
Self-talk refers to statements that athletes and exercisers address to themselves; these might represent automatic verbalizations or more deliberate forms of speech. Although such statements can be said aloud, most self-talk is said covertly as a silent voice in one’s mind. The nature of self-talk can also reflect positive (e.g., I can do this) or
The Renaissance is rightly celebrated for its creativity in the arts. For the history of psychology it initiated the transition from medieval to modern times. The distinctive development of the Renaissance was the reappearance of humanism: placing importance on individual human beings and their lives in this world as opposed to medieval concern with feudal
In severing the mind from the world, Rene Descartes severed the mind from its body. As a consequence, the role and even existence of mind became problematical. How are mind and body related? Do minds exist? Are there other minds? How Are Mind and Body Related? The first question asked was how mind and body
Scientific psychology had three foundings. The first was the psychology of consciousness established by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). The second was the psychology of adaptation, begun by popular writer Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), but given greatest voice by William James (1842-1910). The third was psychoanalysis, launched by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Psychology of Consciousness The guiding ideas of
If psychology at the turn of the century were to be depicted in terms of intellectual leadership, then several individuals would be needed to represent this pluralistic science. it would be accurately represented via the diverse works of Edward B. Titchener, William James, and G. Stanley Hall. Although all three psychologists shared a dedication to
Sportspersonship has long been a topic of interest in physical education (PE) and sport environments and is one of the most frequently mentioned virtues promoted by sports. Sportspersonship represents a wide-ranging concept that has important consequences for the physical and psychological welfare of all sport participants. From a psychological perspective, the concept of sportspersonship is
In his influential theory of motivation and emotion, Ivan Weiner proposed that attributions, the reasons that people use to explain the causes of behavior, are powerful determinants of emotions and motivation. Although attribution researchers in sport have predominantly focused on self-referent attributions (attributions for one’s own behaviors), it has been proposed that team attributions, the
Job loss is a stressful life event in which employees involuntarily lose their current job, marking the start of a state called unemployment. Historically, job loss has gained research attention from several academic disciplines including economics, sociology, and psychology. From the psychological perspective, job loss research can be categorized into two major streams. The first
The “runner’s high” is a euphoric sensation reportedly experienced during running, usually unexpectedly, in which the runner feels a heightened sense of well-being, enhanced appreciation of nature, and transcendence of barriers of time and space. There are many terms in the research and popular literature that have been used to describe the runner’s high. These
The term self-compassion refers to a healthy self-attitude in which one acts in a compassionate way toward oneself, similar to having compassion for others. The term has its origins in Buddhist philosophy, but is a relatively new concept to Western psychology and research. Most self-compassion research to date has been in the general psychology literature,
This article delves into the critical psychological aspects of preparing for parenthood within the framework of health psychology. The introduction establishes the significance of psychological readiness, emphasizing the complex interplay of emotional, cognitive, and social factors involved in the transition to parenthood. The first section explores anticipatory parenthood, focusing on emotional preparedness by examining the