Experimental design provides the logical architecture for scientific research examining causal relationships. Most people intuitively recognize causal relationships. It is not uncommon to hear, for instance, that increased time studying caused an improved test grade, that a “sweet tooth” enabled a friend’s weight gain, or that traffic congestion instigated a “road rage” incident. The tendency
Factor analysis is a data analysis procedure that aims at extracting a small number of factors from a large number of items, that is, from variables. The extracted few factors should be able to describe and explain the core characteristics of a phenomenon, without the loss of too much information. Hence, factors show the essence
Field research is a somewhat dated term that is used to describe research conducted under the naturally occurring contingencies of unmanipulated or naturally manipulated contexts. In this usage it is contrasted with laboratory research, which is to be conducted under highly controlled circumstances and in fully manipulated contexts. In this contrast, field research is considered
The essence of generalization is simplification by omission of irrelevant details. In logic, a concept A is a generalization of concept B, if and only if every instance of concept B is also an instance of concept A, and there are instances of concept A that are not instances of concept B. For example, a
In its original sense “grounded theory” stands for a methodology, research program, and method of qualitative research. In a narrower but also more practical sense the term describes a qualitative technique of text analysis comparable to qualitative content analysis and discourse analysis. Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss introduced grounded theory as a general research program
The term “historiography” is used in a number of different ways. It can refer to writings that present the past as “history.” It can also refer to the way these writings are produced, focusing on the issues of method that are linked to the construction of history. Unlike historical novels, historiography is based on a
Hypotheses are assumptions about empirical (observable) phenomena. They are formulated as empirical (experience-related) statements; thus they can be either true or false – i.e., they are testable. This implies that hypotheses are tentative: their validity (truth or falseness) is subject to empirical test. In this general form, the definition also corresponds to the conventional, everyday
Although great importance is not always attached to the political, economical, social, or cultural role of communication activities, their influence on international relations certainly has not escaped the concern of the United Nations (UN). No matter what its limitations are, international law is not only formal but also symbolic. Further, it has a moral or
In its broadest sense, consumer informatics can refer to that branch of the field of communications dedicated to understanding and improving the use of online information resources by the public. Online information resources have been made available to consumers in a variety of different market sectors, from airline ticketing and travel to the online distribution
Conflict resolution, in general, deals with ways of eliminating, terminating, or settling all kinds of conflict. Conflict can be broadly defined as a state of opposition, incompatibility, contradiction, or disharmony of statements, beliefs, goals, interests, or values among or within individual or collective actors, and the observable processes of dealing with these differences. The notion
Community integration is a compound concept derived from sociology that addresses the two central questions of (1) how communities are formed, reproduce, grow, and change; and (2) what continually integrates or binds them together. The field of communications adds a third dimension, asking (3) what role communication plays in forming, sustaining, and integrating communities. Through
Communication inequality refers to differences in the generation, manipulation, and distribution of information among social groups, as well as differences in: (1) access to and use of information channels, (2) attention to media content, (3) recall, knowledge, and comprehension, and (4) capacity to act on relevant information among individuals (Viswanath 2006). The intellectual origins of
The community structure model explores links among community characteristics, media content, and effects of exposure to media content from a system perspective. Focusing on macro-constructs associated with media content and media effects, the community structure approach rejects the perspective that all studies of media and audiences can be reduced to the individual level of psychological
Crises and disasters are increasingly common in their occurrence and increasingly widespread in their impact. Events such as the Indian Ocean tsunami and Hurricane Katrina illustrate the potential devastation caused by natural disasters, particularly as they interact with human development. Technology-based disasters, sometimes called accidents, such as the Chernobyl nuclear plant explosion, the leak of
“Environmental communication” refers to communication about the natural environment and ecosystem, commonly focusing on the relationships that human beings and their institutions have with the nonhuman natural environment. Much of this communication, historically, has been generated by concern about various environmental problems and issues (global warming, energy, smog, extinction of species, land uses, population growth
Impersonal effects is an increasingly influential paradigm in media effects research. It argues that media are powerful in shaping our perceptions of what anonymous others are feeling and experiencing, and that such perceptions, in turn, influence our attitudes and behaviors in a variety of areas. The effect suggested by the theory is, thus, indirect: exposure
Information scanning concerns information acquisition from routine patterns of exposure to mediated and interpersonal sources. The essential idea is that even when individuals are not actively seeking information on a specific topic, routine use of media and interactions with other people yield exposures to information that affect knowledge, beliefs, and behavior. For many issues and
Radio producers plan, rehearse, and produce live or recorded programs. They work with the music, on-air personalities, sound effects, and technology to put together an entire radio show. They schedule interviews and arrange for promotional events. According to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the United States alone has more than 13,769 radio stations. Larger stations
Radiologic technologists operate equipment that creates images of a patient’s body tissues, organs, and bones for the purpose of medical diagnoses and therapies. These images allow physicians to know the exact nature of a patient’s injury or disease, such as the location of a broken bone or the confirmation of an ulcer. Before an X-ray
Radio and television program directors plan and schedule program material for stations and networks. They determine what entertainment programs, news broadcasts, and other program material their organizations offer to the public. At a large network, the program director may supervise a large programming staff. At a small station, one person may manage the station and
Radio and television announcers present news and commercial messages from a script. They identify the station, announce station breaks, and introduce and close shows. Interviewing guests, making public service announcements, and conducting panel discussions may also be part of the announcer’s work. In small stations, the local announcer may keep the program log, run the
Radiation protection technicians monitor radiation levels, protect workers, and decontaminate radioactive areas. They work under the supervision of nuclear scientists, engineers, or power plant managers and are trained in the applications of nuclear and radiation physics to detect, measure, and identify different kinds of nuclear radiation. They know federal regulations and permissible levels of radiation.
Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of Jewish religious congregations. They interpret Jewish law and tradition and conduct religious services on the Sabbath (a daylong period of rest and worship from Friday evening to Saturday evening) and holy days. Rabbis perform wedding ceremonies and funeral services, counsel members of the congregation, visit the sick, and often
Real estate developers envision, organize, and execute construction or renovation projects for commercial or private use. This process involves negotiations with property owners, real estate agents, investors, lending institutions such as banks and insurance companies, architects, lawyers, general contractors, government officials, and other interested parties. Developers may work independently as consultants or in partnership with
Quality control engineers plan and direct procedures and activities that will ensure the quality of materials and goods. They select the best techniques for a specific process or method, determine the level of quality needed, and take the necessary action to maintain or improve quality performance. Quality control technicians assist quality control engineers in devising
Purchasing agents work for businesses and other large organizations, such as hospitals, universities, and government agencies. They buy raw materials, machinery, supplies, and services required for the organization. They must consider cost, quality, quantity, and time of delivery. Purchasing managers and agents hold approximately 520,000 jobs in the United States. Careers in the field of
Public transportation operators include drivers of school buses, intercity buses, local commuter buses, and local transit railway systems, such as subways and streetcars. Many drivers run a predetermined route within a city or metropolitan area, transporting passengers from one designated place to another. Intercity drivers travel between cities and states, transporting passengers and luggage on
Gary S. Becker received the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in the year 1992: “For having extended the domain of microeconomic analysis to a wide range of human behavior and interaction, including nonmarket behavior.” With his new perspective, he widened the scope of economic sciences and at the same time added numerous insights to the
Collective behavior is defined as mass activity among a specified population and is often used to describe action of localized mass public activity. Collective action usually occurs among aggregates who meet and disperse and interact on a temporary basis. Examples range from crowds at sporting events, to a collection of individuals listening to a public
Ruth Fulton Benedict, renowned anthropologist, ethnographer, field researcher, and founder of the integrative approach to culture, viewed small-scale culture holistically based on a theory of “cultural relativism.” Mentored by Franz Boas, Benedict examined interactive choice, personality, and patterns of culture among the Serrano, Zuni, Cochita, Pima, Pueblo Indian, Dobu Islander, and Zuni Pueblo cultures. Her
Berdache is a term that commonly refers to Native North American gender variants. These are individuals who assumed alternate gender identities by taking on all or some of the tasks and behaviors associated with the opposite sex. Although it is often used in the anthropological literature to refer to biological males who fully or partially
Henri Bergson was a French winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1927. An important philosopher, Bergson’s philosophical and psychological insights into the nature of time and evolution have also affected the discipline of anthropology. Bergson was educated in France at the Lycée Condorcet and the École Normale Supérieure, where he studied philosophy. He
At present, the codirector of the Atapuerca project, José Maria Bermûdez de Castro Risueno (1952—), is one of the two most outstanding Spanish paleoanthropologists. Research professor at National Museum of Natural Sciences in Madrid, Bermûdez de Castro has been a member of the research team of Atapuerca site since 1982, when Emiliano Aguirre organized a
Throughout the ages, most people believed that the cosmos had existed for all eternity in an unchanging or static condition, neither expanding nor contracting. One reason individuals held this belief was an absence of scientific data, coupled with the inability to answer questions about the universe through measurement and observation. Another reason was that most
Lewis Binford is one of the most productive and influential archaeologists of the 20th century. His primary accomplishment has been the organization and definition of the so-called New Archaeology. Binford did graduate study as a student of A. C. Spaulding at the University of Chicago. Like Spaulding, Binford emphasized in his writing the importance of
One’s background does not always indicate a particular future career. Perhaps this view applies to Hiram Bingham, whose academic training on the graduate level was somewhat different from one major area of his life that identifies him as one of the great anthropologists in the 20th century. He was, however, an individual who was to
Concepts The term bioethics was first coined by the biologist Van Rensselaer Potter in his book Bioethics, Science of Survival (1970). The term is taken from two Greek words: bios, the Greek word for “life,” and ethics, which has its roots in the noun ethos, meaning “custom. “Van Rensselaer used it for ethical questions concerning
Bayesian econometrics has become an increasingly popular paradigm for the fitting of economic models, since the early 1990s. Although Bayesian efforts in economics existed well before this time – perhaps originating in our specific discipline with the pioneering work of Zellner in the early 1970s – Bayesian applied work before 1990 was relatively scarce and
Spatial econometrics is concerned with measuring and modeling the correlation of observations generated by the inherent spatial structure of the data (Anselin, 1988). Such correlation, known as spatial dependence, may arise from local interaction of individuals, or from unobserved characteristics that are concentrated across space and that affect the variable of interest. In health economics
A sample survey is a method for collecting data from or about the members of a population so that inferences about the entire population can be obtained from a subset, or sample, of the population members. As an example, it may be desired to know the average length of stay in a hospital for surgical
It is evident that lack of (or poor) insurance coverage is a barrier to access healthcare. Evidence that insurance status is linked to access to healthcare seems overwhelming: those with insurance always use substantially more than those without. Economists tend to be more skeptical, for the following two reasons: they question the causality behind the
Cost shifting exists when a hospital, physician group, or other provider raises prices for one set of buyers because it has lowered prices for some other buyer. The term has also been applied to managed care firms that are similarly said to have raised premiums for one set of purchasers because it had to lower
Introduction Importance Of The Theory Why do consumers purchase health insurance? To purchase anything, the consumer must give up something, and in the case of health insurance, that ‘something’ is the premium payment. Although the nature of the premium payment is clear (to both consumers and economists), what is not clear is the nature of
Introduction Institutional arrangements for health insurance long predate efficacious courses of therapy or even accurate diagnostic techniques. Let health insurance be a type of insurance in which the benefit payment is triggered by an adverse health event. Nowadays the payment is generally intended to pay the costs of health care: physicians and nurses, equipment, drugs
Introduction Although the US, in comparison with other Western countries, was a latecomer to social insurance and the public provision of insurance for health services, it was largely in the America of the 1960s that formal economic analysis of health care first began to take root, and American ideas and practices have long since dominated
Introduction Historical Analysis of Health Insurance explored several frameworks for understanding the evolution of American thought about health insurance; examined the belief of traditional reformers that health insurance should serve as one of a cluster of measures designed to secure citizens from the risks posed by capitalistic markets; suggested that, in an environment of escalating healthcare
Introduction Given the central role that health insurance plays in the American healthcare systems, it is remarkable how short a time it has been with us. Many Americans alive today were born before modern health insurance became available in the United States around 1930. Although brief, the history of health insurance in the United States
Postmodern organizations are organizations that have broken with the traditional principles of organization as defined by modernist theory dominated by rationalism; they are also characterized by having developed new and original forms and practices in response to the changing environmental conditions of postmodern society. Such organizations can be identified both by the extent to which
Professions are one of the main forms of institutionalizing expertise in western societies (Giddens 1991). The term “profession” is a curious one. It immediately conjures up images drawn from television shows featuring lawyers or medical doctors. Such representations point to the hold that certain professions have on our imagination. In Bleak House, Charles Dickens’s celebrated
The accounting scandals such as Enron, Parmalat, and WorldCom have concentrated attention on the accountability and governance of corporations. Social accounting has been described and critiqued from a variety of positions, ranging from right wing neoliberal critiques all the way through to Marxist and deep green critiques. The different positions taken on the desirability or
Workplaces are highly regulated spaces. As Edelman and Suchman (1997) state, they ”are immersed in a sea of law.” In regulating the workplace, the state attempts to control the behaviors of employers, managers, and workers using a system of incentives and penalties and a variety of policy tools. In the US, the government has at
Theoretical and empirical studies of decision making pervade organization theory. They have done so for over six decades. James March and Herbert Simon suggested in 1958 that managing organizations and decision making were virtually synonymous. From this broad perspective, decision making has maintained its centrality to the field of organization theory and is one of
On being asked to define strategic management, the temptation is to respond by asking what is not strategic in management. In other words, as soon as the idea of management is addressed, it is necessary to see it as strategic, although clearly much of management is about managing organizational routines. Such a response begs the
Teams are a particular form of work group. They are groups of people who share responsibility for producing products or delivering services. They share overall work objectives and ideally have the necessary authority, autonomy, and resources to achieve these objectives. Team members are dependent on each other to achieve the objectives and therefore have to
Voluntary organization is a generic term used to refer to a specific type of organization, sometimes also referred to as nonprofit organizations, NGOs (non-government organizations), third sector organizations, and civil society organizations. Each of these terms reflects a slightly different emphasis. For example, the common definition of a nonprofit is ”an organization whose goal is
The top management teams (TMT) literature concerns itself with the study of the most senior teams of executive directors in both private and public sector organizations. These teams are studied in terms of their makeup, their activities, and the extent to which either of these variables has a causal relationship with organizational performance. Top management
The literature on the sociology of organizations is vast and represents a refracted history of the study of bureaucracy. The object of study is variously labeled bureaucracy, complex organizations, and formal organizations, but the concept of organization and the notion of organizing principles subsume all these labels. Thus, according to Blau and Meyer (1987), “the
The term “coding” has different meanings in empirical research. Generally speaking, coding becomes relevant whenever data at hand are unstructured, and coding then provides a structure for a systematic analysis of these data. In quantitative research using standardized instruments, coding is the process of tagging data about a given unit of analysis, in order to
A specific comparative research methodology is known in most social sciences. Its definition often refers to countries and cultures at the same time, because cultural differences between countries can be rather small (e.g., in Scandinavian countries), whereas very different cultural or ethnic groups may live within one country (e.g., minorities in the United States). Comparative
Like quantitative content analysis, qualitative content analysis is an empirical method of social sciences for analyzing live or recorded human communication such as newspaper articles, protocols of television news or programs, transcripts of interviews, or protocols from observations. This written or transcribed material is called text material in this context. From a general perspective, there
Quantitative content analysis is an empirical method used in the social sciences primarily for analyzing recorded human communication in a quantitative, systematic, and intersubjective way. This material can include newspaper articles, films, advertisements, interview transcripts, or observational protocols, for instance. Thus, a quantitative content analysis can be applied to verbal material, and also to visual
The term “copy test” refers to a group of different test methods designed to measure the usage of adverts or editorials in the print media. During the course of an interview, readers who state that they have read the test issue of a magazine or newspaper are shown an original copy of the issue in
A correlation analysis is a statistical procedure that evaluates the association between two sets of variables. The association between variables can be linear or nonlinear. In communication research, however, correlation analyses are mostly used to evaluate linear relationships. Sets of variables may include one or many variables. Associations between two variables (two sets of one
The meaning of a term is determined by a definition. Definitions are, therefore, conventions of a language. Terms are words that describe, for example, objects, processes, characteristics of objects or persons, or notional content of our imagination. The language that we learn forms the foundation for every definition. Terms are attributed to phenomena, which science
The main objective of Delphi studies is to collect expert knowledge for decision-making. In Delphi studies experts’ ideas and opinions are systematically surveyed. The data are gathered through a series of questionnaires interspersed with controlled and anonymous feedback (Häder & Häder 2000). The goal of most Delphi studies is to create a group consensus in
Like qualitative content analysis and Grounded Theory, discourse analysis can be conceived as a qualitative empirical method of analyzing mostly recorded human communication. The term itself was first introduced to the public by Zellig Harris in the early 1950s, but used rather unsystematically. In general terms, discourse analysis serves for analyzing written or spoken language
The main aim of discriminant function analysis is to predict group membership of an object or a person by using as few characteristics (or set of predictors) as possible. Additionally, discriminant analysis is used to classify elements according to their characteristic properties. So if you know the answers a subject might give to a crucial
The European Court of Human Rights, established by and solely responsible for interpreting the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (the Convention), is arguably the most developed and respected international court. Its caseload has swelled in the past two decades thanks in part to its growing legitimacy and to the Council
Public service broadcasting (PSB) is funded by the public, and regulated to ensure that it serves the public interest. Public service broadcasters (PSBs) should be distinguished from state broadcasters, which function mainly to serve the interests of the government, and purely commercial broadcasters, which respond primarily to individual consumer choices rather than to any notion
The radio broadcasting spectrum is viewed as a natural and scarce resource available to all nations. Even though the rules establishing the allocation of bandwidth and assignment of frequencies vary, common principles apply to all countries. The legal rationale for controls over licensing is generally based on four principles: (1) recognition of spectrum as a
In its modern use, freedom of speech means the freedom of communicating in a variety of formats, including but not limited to the spoken word. The right to communicate may vary from one medium to another, and when scholars and jurists discuss free speech, they focus on a broader freedom to communicate, rather than on
In 1990, only 13 countries had laws recognizing a right to access information held by public bodies, which has variously been called the right to know and freedom of information, among other things. As of the time of writing, the number is approaching 70 countries, and many of the new constitutions adopted since 1990 recognize
Public access television – also known as community television or open channels – is a form of television in which citizens produce programs and bypass corporations, governments, journalists, and other gatekeepers to transmit their programs directly to audiences. Proponents of public access television promote it as a remedy to commercialism, centralization, and lack of diversity
“Privacy” is widely recognized as a legal right, but with a range of different meanings. These include restraints on intrusion into the home, confidentiality of correspondence, freedom to make certain fundamental decisions, control of personal data, anonymity, and many others. Countries differ as to the specific understandings of privacy their laws protect and whether those
Pornography or “porn,” is a socially defined class of sexual communication, which may or may not be protected under national laws. The term may be distinguishable from legal definitions of obscenity or indecency. Pornography is generally considered the depiction of graphic sexual behavior usually designed to promote sexual arousal. Pornographic material may be either legal
One of the fundamental goals of a legal system is to establish standards in reconciling competing social interests by weighing their relative values in a society. The same is applied to a society’s libel laws, which provide a peaceful means for individuals to obtain vindication and compensation for their reputational harm and related losses. Therefore
One efficient way to resolve libel disputes out of court is to correct stories in the media. Prompt and timely correction can mitigate the extent of damages caused by the media’s violation of a person’s reputation. Correction is far better as a means to regain an injured reputation than any other means from government or
Renewable energy is defined as a clean and unlimited source of power or fuel. This energy is harnessed from different sources such as wind, sunlight (solar), water (hydro), organic matter (biomass), and the earth’s internal heat (geothermal). Unlike non-renewable energy sources like oil, natural gas, or coal, or nuclear energy, renewable energy is not based
Registered nurses (RNs) help individuals, families, and groups to improve and maintain health and to prevent disease. They care for the sick and injured in hospitals and other health care facilities, physicians’ offices, private homes, public health agencies, schools, camps, and industry. Some registered nurses are employed in private practice. RNs hold about 2.4 million
Regional and local officials hold positions in the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government at the local level. They include mayors, commissioners, and city and county council members. These officials direct regional legal services, public health departments, and police protection. They serve on housing, budget, and employment committees and develop special programs to improve
Refuse collectors gather garbage and other discarded materials set out by customers along designated routes in urban and rural communities and transport the materials to sanitary landfills or incinerator plants for disposal. Refuse collectors may specialize in collecting certain types of material, such as recyclable glass, newsprint, or aluminum. There are approximately 149,000 refuse and
Reflexologists base their work on the theory that reflexes, specific points on the hands and feet, correspond to specific points on other parts of the body. They apply pressure to the feet or hands of their clients in order to affect the areas of the body that correspond to the areas that they are manipulating.
Recycling coordinators manage recycling programs for city, county, or state governments or large organizations, such as colleges or military bases. They work with waste haulers and material recovery facilities to arrange for collecting, sorting, and processing recyclables such as aluminum, glass, and paper from households and businesses. Recycling coordinators are often responsible for educating the
Recreation workers help groups and individuals enjoy and use their leisure time constructively. They organize and administer physical, social, and cultural programs. They also operate recreational facilities and study recreation needs. There are approximately 310,000 recreation workers employed in the United States. Americans enjoy more leisure time today than at any other period in history.
Real-time captioners operate a computer-aided transcription (CAT) stenotype system to create closed captions for use in live television broadcasts, in classroom instruction, or in other scenarios requiring live translating or interpreting on the computer. Computer-aided real-time translation, or CART, refers to the use of machine steno shorthand skills to produce real-time text on a computer.
Real estate brokers are business people who sell, rent, or manage the property of others. Real estate agents are salespeople who are either self-employed or hired by brokers. Sometimes, the term agent is applied to both real estate brokers and agents. There are approximately 460,000 real estate agents and real estate brokers employed in the
Railroad conductors supervise trains and train crews on passenger trains, on freight trains, or in the rail yards. They are responsible for keeping track of the train’s operating instructions and of its makeup and cargo. There are approximately 38,000 railroad conductors and yardmasters employed in the United States. The term conductor is likely to conjure
Daniel G. Bates champions significant contributions in the study of human ecology. Human ecology links the disciplines of anthropology, biology, geography, demography, and economics in a distinctive theoretical model. It is concerned with the interplay between humans and their environments. Human ecology is based on evolutionary theory and seeks to understand and explain how cultural
Australopithecine is the informal adjective designating members of the taxonomic subfamily Australopithecinae, which with the Homininae constitute the family Hominidae. The Hominidae are humans, human ancestors and collateral species after the lineage branched from that leading to chimpanzees. Recently, paleontologists, influenced by evidence from genetics that apes and humans are more closely related than traditional
Hand axes are an artifact type most frequently associated with the Acheulean culture of the Lower Paleolithic or the Early Stone Age. Hand axes are large, bifacially flaked cores. Typically, they are ovate, tear-drop shaped, almandine, or circular, and range from 10 cm to 20 cm in length. Rarely, specimens may reach significantly larger size
The Aymara are an indigenous ethnic group of Bolivia and Peru, who occupy the high altiplano region surrounding Lake Titicaca. In Bolivia, the Aymara number nearly 2 million, comprising a quarter of the national population, and their concentration in and around La Paz gives Bolivia’s capital city a distinctly Aymara flavor. Another 350,000 Aymara live
Some of the most impressive technological achievements of ancient Mesoamerican societies involved increases in the scale, efficiency, and overall productivity of agricultural land use systems. In late pre-Hispanic times, Mesoamerican farmers devised creative ways to meet the subsistence demands of burgeoning populations. Their solutions, which included terracing, irrigation, and raised fields, produced more food per
Modern baboons (Superfamily Cercopithecoidea, Family Cercopithecinae, Tribe Papionini, and Genus Papio) are relatively large Old World monkeys of sub-Saharan Africa. There are five species of Papio (Hamadryas, Guinea, olive, yellow, and chacma baboons) spread across sub-Saharan Africa (see below for species names and their geographic distribution). It should be noted, however, that the five species
At 2,100 acres, Babylon was the largest and most important urban center in ancient Mesopotamia for over 2,500 years. The ancient city is located on the east bank of the Euphrates River, about 60 miles southwest of Baghdad in modern Iraq. Boasting monumental palaces, temples, and ziggurats, as well as ordinary houses and shops, Babylon
Mikhail Bakhtin made a remarkable contribution to social and cultural theory under the most difficult of circumstances: at first under Stalin and then under the relatively relaxed but still highly constrained circumstances of the Soviet Union after Stalin’s death. Though Bakhtin’s thought is compatible with Marxism broadly speaking and has been enthusiastically been adopted by
Defining the Balkan region is a continuous project of contemporary geographers, anthropologists, political entities ranging from the United Nations to local nongovernmental organizations, economists, literary figures, historians, and others both inside and outside the ill-defined region. For example, Hungary is occasionally included in the region, due to the country’s 150 years of Ottoman domination, while
The Banyang people of Cameroon, West Africa, have a strong physical connection to the physical world and the underworld. The Banyang are not exactly animistic; they do not ascribe sentience to natural phenomena. But they believe that natural phenomena are the abode of spirits. Lakes and rivers, hills and forests are inhabited by spirits that
Health economists frequently face the challenge of estimating causal relationships in the absence of controlled experiments. For example, a long-standing issue in economics and in other disciplines is unraveling the observed relationship between education and health. Countless studies have documented a positive correlation between these outcomes, but fewer have successfully addressed the causal impact of
Most empirical research in health economics is conducted with the goal of providing causal evidence of the effect of a particular variable (the causal variable – X) on an outcome of interest (Y). Such analyses are typically conducted in the context of explaining past behavior, testing an economic theory, or to evaluating a past or
In statistics and econometrics, heterogeneity typically refers to a random variable, parameter, or distribution that varies across a population of interest. It can involve the mean, variance, or other features of a distribution and may arise from observed and unobserved causes. Observed heterogeneity is variability in an outcome (or dependent variable) attributable to observed predictors
Introduction and Goals Missing Data And Their Consequences Missing data are common occurrences in health economics and health outcomes research. The patterns of missing data can take many forms. Item missingness occurs when values are missing for selected variables (items) for a subset of subjects or cases; often the subset of cases missing one variable
The distributions of both healthcare expenditures and utilization share a number of characteristics that make their analysis more complicated than conventional economics outcomes; see also Cameron and Trivedi (2013). This article will focus on the analogous issues for costs and expenditures on healthcare. The most salient of these characteristics for many health economics applications are
Count data regression is now a well-established tool in econometrics. If the outcome variable is measured as a non-negative count, y, yϵN0= 0, 1, 2,…. and the object of interest is the marginal impact of a change in the variable x on the regression function E[y|x], then a count regression is a relevant tool of
This article will survey the application of discrete choice models in health economics. The application of econometrics to understanding the health system takes place at several levels: Aggregate: modeling the behavior over time of aggregates such as health care spending and demographics. Market: modeling the behavior of specific markets such as hospital services markets and
Often one is interested in the time spent in a specific state and the effect of variables influencing the length of stay; for example, how long does a patient stay in a hospital and what is the effect of a medical intervention. The state can also be employment, and one may be interested in the
In problems studying the effects of a given intervention or treatment on health outcomes or health costs, it is often the case that researchers and analysts are faced with using observational study data to draw inferences. The use of such data gives rise to various concerns about biases that may influence treatment effect estimates. In
Panel data refer to data sets consisting of multiple observations on each sampling unit. This could be generated by pooling time series observations across a variety of cross-sectional units, including countries, hospitals, firms, or randomly sampled individuals, like nurses, doctors, and patients. This encompasses longitudinal data analysis in which the primary focus is on individual
The term organizational communication denotes both a field of study and a set of empirical phenomena. The former is a largely US-based subdiscipline of the field of communication studies (though programs are being established in New Zealand, Australia, Japan, South Korea, Europe, and China); the latter refers broadly to the various and complex communication practices
Organizational contingencies are factors that moderate the effect of organizational characteristics on organizational performance. Whether a particular level of organizational characteristic would lead to high performance depends on the level of the contingency factor. If there is a fit between the level of contingency and the level of organizational characteristic, then, other things being equal
A broad definition of an organization could be said to be that of any purposeful arrangement of social activity that implies active control over human relations ordered for particular ends. In this sense, organizations involve patterns of relationships beyond primary group associations that are largely spontaneous, unplanned, and informal, and that are typified by kinship
By organizational failure is usually meant failure against some measure of performance, or failure to achieve a goal that is normally expected. Thus, a company can be identified as failing if it is not profitable, or a school if it does not educate students to a required level, or in sufficient numbers. Clearly, such measured
Organizational learning is a construct employed to depict a set of rational and non-rational processes relevant to the creation, retention, and transmission of knowledge in organizations. The concept has been linked to organizational performance, sustainable competitive advantage, organizational transformation and corporate renewal, organizational and technological innovation, and entrepreneurship among other themes. Change, adaptation, and learning
Coercive organizations are the state’s instruments used to ensure safety and public order both of its borders and within its borders. As such, these organizations are authorized to approach the general public in a coercive manner and – in the last resort – they are legitimized to use force and violence against those who intend
Organizations as social structures is a perspective that focuses on the hardware of human association, the durable factors that govern people’s ways of being together as they achieve common goals by coordinated means. As it has been understood in the literature, social structure is what permits the organization’s persistence over time; it describes relations among
The analysis of the characteristics of total institutions is the subject of a lengthy essay by Erving Goffman, a Canadian-born sociologist best known for his complex and subtle contributions to the analysis of social interaction. He defined the term as ”a place of residence and work where a large number of like situated individuals cut
The essence of tradition is sequential pattern, a sequence of related meanings that are received and transmitted over time. The meanings can be related by association to common themes, in the contiguity of presentation and transmission, or in descent from a common origin (Shils 1981). For example, pharmaceutical company Johnson & Johnson has maintained a
Outsourcing refers to the fundamental decision to contract out specific activities that previously were undertaken internally. In other words, outsourcing involves the decision to reject the internalization of an activity and can be viewed as vertical disintegration. As it means to obtain by contract from an outside supplier, it is also called contracting out or
Systems theory reveals that organizations are integrated into their social environment by means of a network of relationships. In part, this rationale of organizational success motivated Harlow, who used the term “public relations” (PR) to describe the field of “all types of relations an organization has with its publics” (1957, xi). Systems theory and relationship
Although public relations practice is slightly ahead of the public relations body of knowledge, both have developed ethnocentrically in the twentieth century, based predominantly on experience and research from the United States and to a lesser extent from some countries in Europe (Sriramesh & Vercic 2003; Van Ruler & Vercic 2004). However, public relations practice
Earning public understanding and acceptance through reports in the press is one of the oldest means–ends schemes in public relations (PR). Firms, governments, NGOs, and interest groups alike use the media to convey their message to their publics. Hence, media influence is a two-step process. Whether PR efforts lead to news items in the media
The 1952 edition of Effective Public Relations: Pathway to Public Favor (Cutlip & Center) set the standard for PR education for decades to come. Chapters 5–7 introduced planning as the second of a three-stage process model. The first step was fact-finding, the second planning, and the third communicating. By 1958, the authors had moved evaluation
Organizational roles are abstract maps summarizing the most salient features of the daily activities of organizational members. Katz & Kahn (1978) considered roles central to the structure of organizations; organizations can be regarded as open systems of interrelated roles. Roles are defined as “recurring actions of an individual, appropriately interrelated with the repetitive activities of
During the past 40-odd years, James E. Grunig’s situational theory of communication behavior has been developed, changed, empirically tested, and adjusted through new research, with the purpose of defining the communication process and the behavior that results from it. Situational theory seeks to explain why people communicate and when it is most likely that they
Rhetorical theory can help public relations to account for the symbolic aspects of communication, which arguably are the heart of public relations activity. Although some fleeting mentions were made of the term in the early public relations literature, it is often said that the rhetorical approach originated around 1980, when Robert L. Heath proposed rhetoric
Audience research is a broad term that, in principle, denotes the systematic study of any audience for any purpose. In practice, the term usually connotes efforts to describe and analyze patterns of media consumption, often for some commercial or administrative purpose. Such research became commonplace in the early twentieth century as new forms of mass
While the term “case study” (or “case method”) is widespread in social methodology and media research, it is nevertheless a complex concept. McCartney (1970, 30) defines a case study as “a descriptive report analyzing a social unit as a whole (e.g. individual, family, organization, etc.) in qualitative terms.” With a different focus but in a
Cluster analysis is a collective term for a broad variety of statistical methods and procedures which share the purpose of reducing the complexity of large collections of elements by arranging these objects into groups. Clustering procedures try to identify homogeneous groups (clusters) of entities within an empirical data set by comparing their attributes. The elements
For the purposes of this article, licensing of journalists is understood to mean a system whereby individuals are required to apply to an external authority for permission to practice journalism, which permission may be refused or revoked. Closely related to licensing are regimes whereby journalists are required to belong to a certain professional association, such
Media policy involves policymaking – and the associated policy research – directed at a wide range of substantive issues and technological contexts, and employing a diverse array of theoretical and methodological perspectives. It is important to note, however, that in the communications field there are a large number of somewhat indistinct policy arenas that overlap
Open meetings law is predicated on the belief that government derives its power from the people in order to act on their behalf. For the government to remain accountable to the people, its processes must remain accessible to them, and to the news media, the people’s watchdog. To narrow the gap between governmental practices and
Governments, by the nature of their functions and purposes, communicate with people inside and outside of their jurisdictions. This process may be called “government speech.” The “law and policy of government speech” in different countries typically depends upon the nature and type of each government and how much that government controls its press systems. Globalization
Governments prevent information from being made public through restraints on speech called “gag orders.” Government executive orders and court injunctions impose gags to restrict the flow of certain types of information to achieve specific government objectives. For example, many national governments enact laws or adopt executive orders to prevent the distribution of official government secrets
The European Union (EU) is a unique supranational entity that has adopted an innovative approach to the challenges posed by its distinctive structure, by the convergence of communications technologies, and by the introduction of free market economics. In the process of transforming into a powerful union that preserves the sovereignty of its members, the EU
Virtually since the dawn of civilization and the establishment of authority-wielding institutions, what people can say and write has been challenged. There is a universal impulse to control expression, particularly statements or opinions contrary to the views, policies, or dogma of those in power. As is typical within repressive regimes, a justification for the suppression
During the latter half of the twentieth century, the world’s established democratic nations – along with those nations seeking to adopt democratic principles – experienced a sea change in governance with the rise of transparency, the idea that the workings of government should be visible. This global movement is grounded in the accountability principle of
There are at least two salient questions when thinking about foreign policy and the media. The first is whether foreign policy is affected by media considerations: have modern technological developments meant that foreign policy is increasingly affected by media concerns? The second is whether there is what might be called a foreign policy of media
Fair trial and freedom of the press concerns how to balance the right of a free press and the defendant’s right to a fair trial. News reporting on judicial proceedings helps the public understand the legal procedure better and contributes to the public’s right to know about the working of the justice system. The media
Rubber goods production workers make items out of natural and synthetic rubber materials. They soften, shape, cure, cut, mold, and otherwise treat rubber to make thousands of different products, from household products to parts for spacecrafts. Natural rubber is a pliable, stretchy material made from the milky juice of various tropical plants. Rubber was given
Roustabouts do the routine physical labor and maintenance around oil wells, pipelines, and natural gas facilities. Sample tasks include clearing trees and brush, mixing concrete, manually loading and unloading pipe and other materials onto or from trucks or boats, and assembling pumps, boilers, valves, and steam engines and performing minor repairs on such equipment. Roustabouts
Roofers install and repair roofs of buildings using a variety of materials and methods, including built-up roofing, single-ply roofing systems, asphalt shingles, tile, and slate. They may also waterproof and damp-proof walls, swimming pools, and other building surfaces. Roughly 162,000 roofers are employed in the United States. History of Roofer Career Roofs cover buildings and
Roman Catholic priests serve as either diocesan priests (sometimes called secular priests), leading individual parishes within a certain diocese, or as religious priests, living and working with other members of their religious order. The primary function of all priests is administering the church’s seven sacraments: baptism, confirmation, confession, holy communion, marriage, holy orders, and anointing
Risk managers help businesses control risks and losses while maintaining the highest production levels possible. They work in industrial, service, nonprofit, and public sector organizations. By protecting a company against loss, the risk manager helps it to improve operating efficiency and meet strategic goals. History of Risk Manager Career Entrepreneurs have always taken steps to
Financial planners help people invest for the future. Retirement planners are financial planners who specialize in the financial needs and concerns of people planning for retirement. Some retirement planners work for corporations of all sizes; many others are self-employed. Retirement planners have diverse backgrounds in fields such as banking, accounting, law, and life insurance. There
Retail sales workers assist customers with purchases by identifying their needs, showing or demonstrating merchandise, receiving payment, recording sales, and wrapping their purchases or arranging for their delivery. They are sometimes called sales clerks, retail clerks, or salespeople. There are approximately 4.3 million retail salespersons employed in the United States. History of Retail Sales Worker
Restaurant and food service managers are responsible for the overall operation of businesses that serve food. Food service work includes the purchasing of a variety of food, selection of the menu, preparation of the food, and, most importantly, maintenance of health and sanitation levels. It is the responsibility of managers to oversee staffing for each
Resort workers assist the public at spas, luxury hotels, casinos, theme parks, and lodges. Employment opportunities range from entry-level housekeepers and retail clerks to highly specialized game attendants and ski instructors. Each worker is necessary to ensure the smooth daily operation of the business and comfort of resort patrons. Club Med, the largest resort chain
Reservation and ticket agents are employed by airlines, bus companies, railroads, and cruise lines to help customers in several ways. Reservation agents make and confirm travel arrangements for passengers by using computers and manuals to determine timetables, taxes, and other information. Ticket agents sell tickets in terminals or in separate offices. Like reservation agents, they
From a strict anthropological point of view, informed by the recent self-critical turn of the research, it is a debatable issue whether we should admit universals in art. It is equally an open question as to whether art is indeed a universal form of expression and communication. In what follows, we will attempt to lay
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the capability of devices or mechanisms and machinery to perform functions usually associated with human intelligence, including scientific systems, reasoning, optimization through experience, and automated motor systems. The American Association for Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) is dedicated “to advancing the scientific understanding of the mechanisms underlying thought and intelligent behavior and their
The Asante (or Ashanti) are a Ghanaian people numbering about 1.5 million (about 15% of the population of Ghana) and centered in the city of Kumasi but also occupying the entire Ashanti region, which is bordered by Brong-Ahafo, western, central, and eastern regions. The Asante are members of the Akan language and cultural group (about
Assimilation refers to that result of culture change whereby the members of one society modify their behavior and values to become very similar to, or identical with, those of another society possessing a different culture. It is to be distinguished from the potentially rapid processes of culture change due to internal innovation and invention and
Atapuerca is a World Heritage Site located in Burgos province, Spain. The construction of a railroad at the end of the 19th century, cutting through the foothills of the Sierra de Atapuerca, led to the discovery of several hominid sites. In 1910, the archaeologist Jesus Carballo discovered the Bronze Age site and paintings in the
It is theorized the Athabascan were the last Native American group to cross Beringia 10,000 years ago. Their territory (after crossing Beringia) would have started in the subarctic terrain from the Yukon or interior of Alaska, to northwestern Canada. These sturdy peoples of the North not only survived the tundra and nomadic lifestyle of Athabascan
Jean Marie Auel, born on February 18, 1936, in Chicago, Illinois, is the author of the series, Earth’s Children, a collection of novels revolving around the interactions of Cro-Magnon people with Neandertals. Auel did not come to her chosen craft as a trained writer. Rather, after raising five children and earning an MBA from the
The Aurignacian is an early Upper Paleolithic, or Late Stone Age, culture dating to between 34,000 and 27,000 years before the present (BP). Aurignacian artifacts have long been considered representative of the culture of the first anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) to migrate into continental Europe. This is currently an issue of intense debate
The Commonwealth of Australia is a country, a continent, and an island. It lies completely in the southern hemisphere, southeast of the Asian landmass, between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The name Australia is derived from the Latin australis, meaning “southern.” As far back as the second century AD, legends hinted at the existence of
Baluchistan means “land of the Baluch.” It is found where Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan meet, spreading over southeastern Iran, southwestern Afghanistan, and western Pakistan. This is a harsh and broken land of sand and pebble deserts punctuated by jagged volcanic mountains and deeply gouged runoff wadis. The climate is dry or dryer, and the little
The best known ‘facts’ about the macroeconomics of health are that rich nations are healthier and spend more on medical care than poor nations, but that additional wealth or spending may not add much to life expectancy after some threshold level has been exceeded (Figure 1(a)–(c)). A fact that receives insufficient attention is that any
Infectious disease outbreaks such as pandemic influenza or severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003 are, thankfully, rare events, but they do occur with some degree of regularity and impose a significant public health burden over a short period of time. For instance, there were three influenza pandemics in the twentieth century: in 1918, 1957
The notion of traveling abroad for the purposes of health and well-being is well established. The spas of Hungary, baths of Turkey, and geysers of Sweden have long been popular destinations for those seeking convalescence. Where surgical care was required, the direction of travel generally saw the wealthy citizens of poorer nations traveling to the
Mental health problems are among the most complicated and challenging of all illnesses, with considerable economic implications. It is conventional to distinguish between common mental disorders (including depression, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress, with an overall prevalence of 15–20%) and severe mental disorders (particularly schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, with a
Pharmaceuticals used to treat a variety of health conditions continue to be a critical aspect of quality healthcare. However, consistent access to medicines in many low- and lower-middle income countries persists as a major challenge. Although there has been a global increase in proportion of gross domestic product (GDP) spent on health, there are significant
Health status improvements over the past 400 years have been steady, with a surge over the last century that is nothing short of spectacular, and a period during which economic progress has soared. Vaccines, antibiotics, and other medical advances have contributed to reductions in illness (morbidity) and mortality. Economic growth has shown equally impressive gains
This article covers a number of measurement issues which arise in Health Economics. The first of these arises when economists wish to make comparisons between populations on the basis of some measure of health, h, where hi refers to the value of the health measure for individual i. Such comparisons may be between different populations
Empirical health economists are likely to encounter questions regarding health and health behaviors that involve dynamics. What does one mean by dynamics? Put simply, a dynamic model of economic behavior captures the element of ‘time.’ In contrast, a static model leaves out time. More specifically, intertemporal dependence is made explicit in dynamic models. This article
This article reviews econometric techniques and studies aimed at characterizing the market structure in the health sector. It focuses on the following issues: (1) the effect of competition on hospital quality, efficiency, and prices (if they are not fixed by a regulator); (2) differences in behavior that arise from different types of ownership status (non-profit
This article presents inference for many commonly used estimators – least squares, generalized linear models, generalized method of moments (GMM), and generalized estimating equations – that are asymptotically normally distributed. Section Inference focuses on Wald confidence intervals and hypothesis tests based on estimator variance matrix estimates that are heteroskedastic-robust and, if relevant, cluster-robust. Section Model
The sociology of race is the study of race and race relations. It has long been a central concern of sociologists. The assignment of individuals to racial categories profoundly affects the quality and even the length of their lives. These assignments are ostensibly made on the basis of biological criteria, such as skin color, hair
Race and ethnicity are important factors in friendship formation. People tend to form friendships with others who live near them and who occupy similar social positions, belong to the same organizations, and are like themselves in terms of attitudes, values, and behaviors. Race and ethnicity are often cues of these similarities; therefore, race and ethnicity
Absenteeism is failing to report for scheduled work. As such, it is the violation of a social obligation to be in a particular place at a particular time (Johns 1997; Harrison & Martocchio 1998). Traditionally, absenteeism was viewed as an indicator of poor individual performance and a breach of an implicit contract between employee and
Branding and organizational identity refer to a process through which a pattern or a structure is ascribed to a group of individuals and recognized as unique, autonomous, and relatively stable in space and time. There are two components to this: the organizational identity, which is a concern with what and who the organization is, and
While bureaucracy stretches back into antiquity, especially the Confucian bureaucracy of the Han dynasty, the modern rational legal conception of bureaucracy emerged in France in the eighteenth century. Indeed, the word is French in origin: it compounds the French word for an office – bureau – with the Greek word for rule. In the nineteenth
A key aim of change management is to manage processes towards a future that, even when anticipated and planned for, can never be fully foreseen. It is a paradox that continues to generate considerable debate and conceptual and definitional confusion. Defining Change Management There are many different definitions of change management. Simple definitions tend to
The concept of ethics has a long history in western philosophy. Usually, ethics is understood as reflecting on and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. Following this definition, business ethics is the reflection on the ethical behavior of business organizations. Much discussion of business ethics focuses on the ethical consequences of the pursuit of
Still a controversial issue, the idea that the ‘‘civilian’’ world might be becoming more democratic is juxtaposed with an opposite trend with respect to the organizational world. As Rousseau and Rivero, among others, put it: ‘‘Although we are increasingly likely to be governed by democratic political systems, our workplaces are seldom democratic’’ (2003: 116). The
Human resource management (HRM) has various definitions, but in the main there are two general approaches. The first descriptive approach states that HRM is the managing of employees and human assets at work and within the organization in an integrated and coherent manner. The second approach elaborates this further by stating that HRM is distinct
Operations management is a discipline that is seen by some as caught between the pragmatic and the theoretical. In common with its cognate disciplines such as operational/operations research and information systems – and indeed systems thinking more generally – there is often an uneasy tension between the need to be able to carry out research
Public relations (PR) is a strategic management function responsible for cultivation of good relations between an organization and its strategic constituencies (stakeholders and publics). The ultimate goal of public relations is social harmony. The co-orientation model of public relations assumes that organizations prefer harmony to conflict and that they can use communication for that purpose.
A topos is a line of argument that can be adapted to a variety of subjects and audiences. Since Aristotle’s time, communicators have used lists of topoi to generate arguments relevant to their persuasive tasks. In addition to introducing the cultural topoi perspective, this article describes a set of topoi that are widely used: cultural
Studies under the heading of determination theory focus on the question of how media content is produced. The main assumption is that news releases and other public relations material play a critical role in news-gathering activities. Public relations (PR) as a source of media content has been analyzed in communication studies since the 1970s (Sigal
The intereffication model focuses on the relationship between public relations (PR) and journalism (Bentele et al. 1997). It was designed in a research project in 1996 – 1997 that focused on the PR activities of two East German cities, Leipzig and Halle. Unlike the determination hypothesis, the intereffication model stresses the interconnectedness of PR and
Over the years, academics and practitioners have worked to define public relations by what it accomplishes, the role it plays in society. One attempt at positioning the practice, and research about the practice, features the impact public relations can have on the quality of the relationship between each organization and its key publics, a theme
The term “professionalization” refers to the way in which occupations become recognized as professions, usually explained by a range of factors related to the improvement of services offered and status enjoyed. The precise meaning of the term depends on the approach taken to defining the concept of “profession.” Three theoretical perspectives are in evidence in
Public affairs is both a generic term for the trends and conditions that define and result from socio-economic–socio-political trends, and the corporate management function that works to position each organization comfortably and cooperatively in its nonmarketplace context. Focusing on the latter meaning, Madden (2005, 665) defined public affairs as “the management function responsible for interpreting
A core responsibility of communicators in public relations is to manage issues. Public relations holds the substantial moral responsibility of defining issues, communicating about those issues with publics and the media, and working to prevent and resolve problems between organizations and publics. This weighty responsibility includes deciding what concepts are related or unrelated to an
The notion of public diplomacy has been used in international relations and in international communication studies since about the mid-1960s. It originates from US foreign policy from the period of the Cold War. Public diplomacy is understood as a dialogical communication between governments and other actors on the stage of international relations via the mass
Evaluation is a management tool that allows the user to establish whether a project or campaign has had its intended effect. Effective evaluation is at the center of any public relations effort and should be a basic element of any planned public relations action. In reality, however, evaluation is often overlooked or not undertaken for
The media law regimes in Africa are the result of a confluence of historical and political factors: first, the authoritarian colonial systems inherited at independence; second, international communication policy transfers from the UN and its specialized agencies; and third, the post-Cold War liberalization of the 1990s. The 53 countries on the African continent can be
Generally speaking, censorship is the control of speech and other forms of human expression. For the most part, bodies that partake in censorship attempt to provide stability for and strengthen their control over certain individuals and groups under their authority. Censorship commonly takes place in the following areas: morally questionable material like pornography, military intelligence
The American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR) is the leading Organization of American States (OAS) human rights treaty. Adopted in 1969, it came into force in 1978. It guarantees, among other things, the right to freedom of expression. The ACHR was preceded by the OAS Charter, the founding document of the OAS, which includes only
The role of advertising as a pervasive communication continues to expand around the world. In response, many societies face greater challenges in regulating advertising in a manner that shields the public from deceptive and unfair conduct. Many legal sources regulate advertising practices, and the legislative rationale for curbing this unique type of speech has been
Access to the media encompasses the efforts and rights of individuals and groups to represent their views through the pages or airtime of established media entities – private or public. It should not be confused with access to information or even the related question of open-access television. The access-to-media question typically arises when a political
Today, the law of intellectual property encompasses the legal concerns represented by copyrights, trademarks, patents, design rights, trade secrets, and related concerns. This area of law focuses on protecting the rights of the owners of intellectual property to control when and if a work is reproduced, related adaptations of the work, and distribution and performance
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights, established by the American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR), is the leading regional human rights court in the Americas. The Court consists of seven judges, elected by secret ballot by member states of the Organization of American States (OAS). Cases may be referred to the Court only by the
The Internet is a global network of computer networks linked by various information and telecommunication infrastructures and technologies. The Internet and the technologies which transmit its rivers of information around the globe are conceptualized and regulated by all countries of the world within the framework of their political, economic, social, and cultural systems. Each country
“Knowledge is power,” said English lawyer and philosopher Francis Bacon (1561–1626). But sometimes journalists have the knowledge while the government has the power. This can lead to clashes that, unfortunately for journalists, can sometimes lead to imprisonment and even death. While civil libel suits against journalists remain the media’s biggest financial danger, that danger pales
The law of defamation targets false communication, whether by words, pictures, gestures, or music, that causes one’s reputation to be harmed among a respectable segment of society. The law, especially in Euro-American nations, traditionally distinguished between libel (written) and slander (spoken). Recovery for slander generally required proof of special damages, or monetary loss, because the
Signal mechanics or signal maintainers are railroad employees who install, repair, and maintain the signals, signal equipment, and gate crossings that are part of the traffic control and communications systems along railroad tracks. They keep both electrical and mechanical components of signaling devices in good operating order by routinely inspecting and testing lights, circuits and
Sign language interpreters help people who use sign language communicate with people who can hear and speak. They translate a message from spoken words to signs, and from signs to spoken words. They are fluent in American Sign Language, and/or sign systems based on English (such as Seeing Essential English, Signing Exact English, and Linguistics
Sheet metal workers fabricate, assemble, install, repair, and maintain ducts used for ventilating, air-conditioning, and heating systems. They also work with other articles of sheet metal, including roofing, siding, gutters, downspouts, partitions, chutes, and stainless steel kitchen and beverage equipment for restaurants. Not included in this group are employees in factories where sheet metal items
Security consultants and security guards are responsible for protecting public and private property against theft, fire, vandalism, illegal entry, and acts of violence. They may work for commercial or government organizations or private individuals. More than one million security workers are employed in the United States. History of Security Consultants and Security Guards Careers People
Secret Service special agents are employed by the U.S. Secret Service, part of the Department of Homeland Security. Secret Service agents work to protect the president and other political leaders of the United States, as well as heads of foreign states or governments when they are visiting the United States. Special agents also investigate financial
Secondary school teachers teach students in grades seven through twelve. Specializing in one subject area, such as English or math, these teachers work with five or more groups of students during the day. They lecture, direct discussions, and test students’ knowledge with exams, essays, and homework assignments. There are approximately 1.1 million secondary school teachers
Screenwriters write scripts for entertainment, education, training, sales, television, and films. Screenwriters may choose themes themselves, or they may write on a theme assigned by a producer or director, sometimes adapting plays or novels into screenplays. Screenwriting is an art, a craft, and a business. It is a career that requires imagination and creativity, the
School nurses focus on students’ overall health. They may work in one school or in several, visiting each for a part of the day or week. They may also assist the school physician, if the school employs one. They work with parents, teachers, and other school and professional personnel to meet students’ health needs. School
Science and medical writers translate technical medical and scientific information so it can be disseminated to the general public and professionals in the field. Science and medical writers research, interpret, write, and edit scientific and medical information. Their work often appears in books, technical studies and reports, magazine and trade journal articles, newspapers, company newsletters
Sales representatives, also called sales reps, sell the products and services of manufacturers and wholesalers. They look for potential customers or clients such as retail stores, other manufacturers or wholesalers, government agencies, hospitals, and other institutions; explain or demonstrate their products to these clients; and attempt to make a sale. The job may include follow-up
With a varied and lengthy pedigree, environmental archaeology has grown in importance in recent decades. What was once seen just as a loose collection of techniques devoted to sampling past environments has developed into an important theoretical and methodological research perspective. Quite simply, environmental archaeology is the study of past human economic, political, and ritual
Maritime archaeology is a subdiscipline of archaeology dedicated to examining prehistoric and historic sites related to aquatic environments. This can include shipwreck sites in an ocean, coastal ports, underwater archaeological remains, or any submerged land structures. The terms used to describe this field of study usually refer to the location of the sites, although shipwrecks
Defining Medieval Archaeology The European Middle Ages or Medieval period begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE and ends with the European voyages of discovery in the 15th century CE. The millennium-long era starts with the Migration period (ca. 400600 CE), sometimes known as the “Dark Ages” due
Salvage (or compliance) archaeology is performed in response to local, state, and federal historic preservation mandates. Compliance archaeology ensures that cultural resources that are likely to be impacted by construction are properly managed through documentation and excavation before they are destroyed. Over half of the archaeologists working in the United States today are employed in
The built environment in which we live as humans is an important matter. The architectural landscape deeply structures our lives. On the other hand, architecture, as it is produced today in our urbanized environments, is based on too restricted knowledge. Postmodern “theory of architecture” is determined by the conventional history of art. Its narrow concept
The Arctic is the region of Earth where the sun never rises for one 24-hour period in the winter and never sets for one 24-hour period in the summer. This area has been demarcated as north of the 66.5° north latitude and includes the northern parts of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Siberia, and the Svalbard archipelago
American anthropologist, author, and playwright, Robert Ardrey was known for his contributions to anthropology, the gilded stage, and silver screen. Born in Chicago, Illinois, Ardrey’s interest in science and writing were sustained after attaining a PhD from the University of Chicago (1930). Though performing numerous jobs to support his first wife and two children (Ardrey
Argentina is the second largest country in South America with a population of 39,144,753. Although the official language is Spanish, Italian culture influences the food, music, and traditions of Argentina, making it unique from other South American countries. Significant numbers of Spanish, Basque, Irish, German, British, mestizo, and other ethnic groups also influence Argentina’s cosmopolitan
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, one of the key intellectual figures in the history of Western philosophy and culture. He was for centuries authoritatively known as “the Philosopher,” because his philosophy as well as his science dominated Western civilization for about four centuries, after they were resurrected for the European culture in
At present, the codirector of the Atapuerca project, Juan Luis Arsuaga Ferreras (1954—) is one of the two most outstanding Spanish paleoanthropologists. Full professor of human paleontology at University Complutense of Madrid, he has been a member of the research team of Atapuerca site since 1982, when Emiliano Aguirre organized a multidisciplinary group to study
In 1990, development assistance for health (DAH) flowing from the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries amounted to only US$4 billon accounted in the index year of 2009. This figure had increased to US$19 billion by 2010, although the year 2009 saw a decline in DAH perhaps due to the economic downturn in
By the end of 2009, the year in which Mexico first reported human infections with the H1N1 influenza A virus that then spread globally to cause a pandemic, 70 715 Mexicans had been reported with confirmed H1N1 infection of whom 1316 (~5%) had died. During this same period, though there were no official travel or
Recent years have seen important shifts in global development assistance for health (DAH). Global health initiatives (GHIs) – consisting of bilateral donor and multilateral programs, and global public–private partnerships – have mobilized significant new financing for health programs, and equate to a considerable proportion of overall overseas development aid (ODA) for health in many low-
Public goods have, for centuries, been part of the economic analysis of government policy at the national level. This has included many goods associated with improving population health, such as water and sanitation. However, in an increasingly globalized world, health is an ever more international phenomenon. Each country’s health affects, and is affected by, events
Concerns about the macroeconomic consequences of the human immunodeficiency virus, and the associated acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) have been fueled by several factors. Most obviously, the epidemic has a devastating impact on life expectancy in a number of countries. In the empirical literature on economic growth (not dealing specifically with HIV/AIDS), such a decline is
With increasing globalization, countries have opened up their borders to trade in goods and services, often including health services. This has given rise to heated debates in the media and the academic and professional literature, with proponents arguing that it can improve efficiency and facilitate the sharing of ideas, although opponents argue that international trade
There has been considerable debate in recent years regarding globalization of health services and its implications for exporting and importing economies. This debate has been sparked by the growing scope for cross border delivery of health services due to advances in information and communication technology, growing mobility of healthcare providers and patients, and commercialization of
The first section of this article reviews the risks associated with cross-border trade as well as legal consequences of trade treaties, focusing on World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements. It also discusses three features of the WTO agreements, which provide space for addressing the tensions between the economic objectives of trade policy and public health objectives.
The international migration of skilled health workers (SHWs) has grown rapidly since the 1970s, become more complex, more global, and of concern to countries that lose workers from fragile health systems. As health care has become more commercialized, so too has migration, as part of a wider globalization of health services. Few parts of the
Rapid increases in overweight and obesity prevalence rates over the last few decades, accompanied (and caused) by widespread dietary imbalances, are imposing huge burdens on health care systems and reducing the quality of life of populations around the world. These trends are not limited to the developed world alone, where there is talk of an
Scientific literacy, and more so the public understanding of science, have recently become areas of study in their own right within the sociology of science and science and technology studies (STS). This emergence is partly due to the increased focus on science as an inherently social activity, but more specifically it is due to the
The term model is used in multiple ways in science and there are several different kinds of models. The most basic scientific models are material and conceptual analogues. They are copies that stand in for more opaque systems. Cloud chambers and cell cultures are examples of material models, whereas conceptual models are more abstract analogies
The notion that scientists and other scholars constitute a kind of community of scholars has frequently been asserted and discussed (Godfrey Smith 2003). The ”invisible college” of natural philosophers is a seventeenth century idea (Price 1963). The phrasing is reminiscent of Adam Smith’s later ”invisible hand,” except that the scientists are real persons and it
The classic sociological formulation of the scientific norms was given by Robert K. Merton, in an article originally published as ”A Note on Science and Democracy” (1942) and reprinted as ”Science and Democratic Social Structure” in his Social Theory and Social Structure (1968 [1949, 1957]) and as ”The Normative Structure of Science” in The Sociology
Scientific productivity refers to the productivity of scientists in their research performance. In other words, the term concerns how much output scientists produce within a certain time period, or compared to the inputs that are utilized for the research. The major outputs from research are publications, patents, inventions, and product developments. However, especially in research
In its simplest form, the social construction of science means that there is no direct link between nature and our ideas about nature -the products of science are not themselves natural. This claim can be taken to mean different things and a distinction is often made between strong and weak interpretations of social constructivism. The
Society and biology is one of the new transdisciplinary fields of sociology that emerged in the 1990s. Owing to its strong links with genetic research, medicine, health, agriculture, environment, and science and technology, it has developed a number of important research centers, such as Bios (Center for the Study of Bioscience, Biomedicine, Biotechnology, and Society)
”Speaking truth to power” refers to the belief that scientists, unimpeded by economic self-interest or partisan bias, will deliver honest and often uncomfortable truths to those in positions of power. It is the foundational claim of the sociology of science that only certain types of social structure enable scientists – or, rather, science as a
The history and present status of women in science are of interest to sociologists because of the longstanding disparities in women’s and men’s relative rank and levels of productivity in science, but also because of the male domination of the sciences as a whole. A range of psychological, structural, and cultural explanations have been developed
Sociology of science studies the social organization of science, the relationships between science and other social institutions, social influences on the content of scientific knowledge, and public policy regarding science. The definition of the term “science” is problematic. Science can refer to a changing body of shared knowledge about nature or to the methods used
The situation comedy, or sitcom, has been a staple of entertainment media for decades. More than 900 have been on the air since 1947. Starting on radio, it quickly became popular with audiences. With the advent of television in the late 1940s, sitcoms migrated to the small screen, and it is these sitcoms with which
Although they are often framed as “merely” fun and games, sports and the communication that surrounds them influence social norms. Many scholars recognize that the “sports– media complex,” identified as such by Jhally (1989, 77) because of the virtually inseparable relationship between high-profile sports and media, is one that entertains but also reflects and reinforces
In most of Latin America, subaltern populations are those whose primary origins are indigenous, including lower-class mestizo people (i.e., people of mixed origins – indigenous with European) and the urban poor of predominantly indigenous background. Internal migration, urbanization, and modernization are three elements that have influenced transformations in popular communication. For instance, in Peru, television
Symbolic annihilation is used to highlight the erasure of peoples in popular communication. George Gerbner coined the term to describe the “absence” (1972, 44; Gerbner & Gross 1976), “condemnation,” or “trivialization” (Tuchman 1978, 17) of a particular group in the media. Generally applied to women and racial and sexual minorities, symbolic annihilation points to the
“Television” refers to “seeing from afar.” It describes a physical device, a cultural system, and a labor process that brings the two together and embeds them in the daily experience of half the world’s population. “Popular” signifies of, by, and for the people, offering transcendence through pleasure, but doing so by referring to the everyday.
Tourism is now the largest industry in the world, and as such, it has increasingly become of interest to scholars in a number of academic disciplines, such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, semiotics, communication and arketing. It is also the subject of analyses using interdisciplinary approaches, such as leisure studies, feminist studies, and cultural studies. Tourism
A game is a voluntary activity with rules and some sought-after outcome. A video game is a game played on some electronic device. Playing video games is not necessarily fun all the time. However, succeeding at the challenge of learning the skills to master a game is rewarding. The computer game industry developed quickly and
As the social historian Philippe Aries reminds us (1962), “childhood” and “youth” are socially constructed conceptions of age and not biological givens. Indeed, the idea that a transitional period of youth occurs between childhood and adulthood is a relatively recent invention, beginning with Rousseau’s Emile in mid-eighteenth-century Europe, which celebrated childhood and delineated stages of
A zine is an independent publication produced by an individual or collective on a low budget and distributed on a small scale primarily for personal, artistic, or social aims rather than for profit. Because zine communities arise outside of mainstream media systems, they represent ways in which people understand and engage with media that diverge
Consensus-oriented public relations (COPR) is a concept for planning and evaluating public relations (PR). Especially in situations with a high chance of conflict, companies and organizations are forced to present good arguments for communicating their interests and ideas – in other words, they must make the public understand their actions. Therefore, in the viewpoint of
The phrase “communication and law” is used in this article to refer broadly to the general field of speech and press law. It is also used to denote multidisciplinary research done at the intersection of two distinctly separate disciplines of study (communication and law). The study of communication and law has traditionally been nation-specific, with
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22 countries belong to the Arab League, established in 1945. Most of those countries were ruled by the Ottomans, British, French, or Italians. Thus, Arab countries have largely adopted legislation based mostly on the legal systems of their former colonial rulers. Egypt, however, has a longer and more established legal tradition that dates back to
North America consists of 23 countries, including the United States, Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean Island nations, and Central America. The continent also encompasses several territories and possessions such as Greenland. The United States dominates the region, especially in the area of communication law and policy, with Canada next in line. Except for Cuba, all of
South America comprises 13 countries with a vast array of cultural backgrounds. Its cultural diversity stems from Spanish, French, Dutch, Portuguese, and a myriad of indigenous languages, which is reflected in South American communication law and policy. Néstor García Canclini (2005) has called South American culture a hybrid variety of influence and patterns. Citizens’ liberty
The term “conflicts of law” refers to the procedures courts use to determine the appropriate law and place to settle a claim in cases involving litigants from different nations or sovereign states within federations. This area of law encompasses three separate but related concepts: personal jurisdiction, choice of law, and enforcement of foreign judgments. In
Copyright is the branch of law that provides property rights in expression, and it is the primary legal regime for the cultural and information industries, including print publishing, music, film, television, radio, theater, computer software, photography, and fine art. Copyright only protects expression, not the ideas being expressed. Ideas are the thoughts inside our heads
Cross-ownership of media occurs when a person or company owns outlets in more than one medium in the same geographical market. It is a business strategy driven by advances in technology and also a public policy issue due to concerns over increased concentration of ownership. Cross-ownership is aimed at achieving economies of scope across multiple
The first newspapers were published in Europe in 1605: Nieuwe Tijdinghen in Antwerp and Relation in Strasbourg, both published as weeklies. Soon afterwards, more newspapers appeared in several European cities, until in 1650 the first daily newspaper was printed in Leipzig, Germany. Censorship and license were the key legal restraints on newspapers under the absolute
Communication law and policy in Asia covers a spectrum of issues involving widely varying political, cultural, and legal contexts across dozens of countries in the world’s largest and most populous continent. While it can be difficult to generalize legal trends in the region because of a lack of conformity of interests and laws, or of
Special procedures technologists operate medical diagnostic imaging equipment such as computer tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners and assist in imaging procedures such as angiography and cardiac catheterization (CC). They are employed in various health care settings such as hospitals, clinics, and imaging centers. Their skills will continue to be in high demand
Special effects technicians work to make the illusions in movies, theater, and television seem real. When a director wants us to see a man turn into a wolf or a train explode in a fiery crash, it is the job of special effects technicians to make it happen. They work with a variety of materials
Special education teachers teach students ages 3 to 21 who have a variety of disabilities. They design individualized education plans and work with students one-on-one to help them learn academic subjects and life skills. Approximately 441,000 special education teachers are employed in the United States, mostly in public schools. Modern special education traces its origins
Spa attendants work in hotels, resorts, and salons. They are specially trained in facial, body, and water treatments. They assist massage therapists and estheticians, and prepare and clean the treatment rooms and tables. They provide spa customers with refreshments, towels, washcloths, and robes. According to the International SPA Association, there are 280,700 people employed by
Songwriters write the words and music for songs, including songs for recordings, advertising jingles, and theatrical performances. We hear the work of songwriters every day, and yet most songwriters remain anonymous, even if a song’s performer is famous. Many songwriters perform their own songs. Songwriter Career History Songwriting played an important part in the growth
Soil conservationists develop conservation plans to help farmers and ranchers, developers, homeowners, and government officials best use their land while adhering to government conservation regulations. They suggest plans to conserve and reclaim soil, preserve or restore wetlands and other rare ecological areas, rotate crops for increased yields and soil conservation, reduce water pollution, and restore
Sociologists study the behavior and interaction of people in groups. They research the characteristics of families, communities, the workplace, religious and business organizations, and many other segments of society. By studying a group, sociologists can gain insight about individuals; they can develop ideas about the roles of gender, race, age, and other social traits in
Social workers help people and assist communities in solving problems. These problems include poverty, racism, discrimination, physical and mental illness, addiction, and abuse. They counsel individuals and families, they lead group sessions, they research social problems, and they develop policy and programs. Social workers are dedicated to empowering people and helping them to preserve their
Ski resorts offer many different types of employment opportunities. Qualified ski resort workers are needed to supervise the activities on ski slopes, run operations at the lodge, provide instruction to skiers, and ensure the safety of resort patrons. There are numerous ski resorts located throughout the United States and the world. Jobs are plentiful, though
Professional singers perform opera, gospel, blues, rock, jazz, folk, classical, country, and other musical genres before an audience or in recordings. Singers are musicians who use their voices as their instruments. They may perform as part of a band, choir, or other musical ensembles, or solo, whether with or without musical accompaniment. Singers, musicians, and
Apes and humans, commonly referred to as hominoids, are a closely related group of primates classified together in their own superfamily, the Hominoidea. The living hominoids are subdivided into two families, the Hylobatidae and the Hominidae (see table). The hylobatids or lesser apes (belonging to a single genus, Hylobates) are represented by 11 or so
Current nomenclature divides the apes into two distinct families: the greater apes and the lesser apes. Historically, apes were classified together in the family Pongidae, which excluded humans. Now there are two families, Hominidae and Hylobatidae. The greater apes comprise the family Hominidae, consisting of gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos, orangutans, and humans. There has been
Apes, in the past, have been classified as a single group of primates. The current nomenclature divides apes into two distinct families: the greater apes and the lesser apes. The lesser apes are in the family Hylobatidae, consisting of 11 species that are currently recognized in the family. Hylobates, the single genus of Hylobatidae, is
Apollonian refers to something or someone presenting the main characteristics of Apollo. Apollo was one of the gods of the ancient Greeks, son of Zeus and Leto, and twin brother of Artemis. He was the divinity linked to sunlight but also to the punishment of impiety by the infliction of diseases, protecting health, music, and
In 1960, Sir Alister Hardy, a marine biologist knighted for his contribution to the fisheries industry, gave a talk at the British Sub-Aqua Club (a scuba-diving club) and a month later published an article in New Scientist on that talk, called “Was Man More Aquatic in the Past?” Although the idea caught people’s fancies and
Italian Dominican priest, philosopher, and theologian (Angelic Doctor of the Church), Thomas Aquinas was noted for systemizing theology by infusing ancient Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotle, with divine revelation as depicted by Judeo-Christian faith. Born at Roccasecca to nobleman Count Landulf and Countess Theodora (related to Emperor Fredrick II and Royalty in Spain and France), Aquinas
Researchers in biology have often directed their efforts toward elucidating the origins of major phyla or classification groups. While we have paid the most attention to the larger questions of transitions between classes, we are also considerably interested in the origins of orders. Cladistic methodology demands that we identify synapomorphies that define different orders but
Archaeology Definition Archaeology is the study of human cultures through the study of material and environmental remains. The word, derived from ancient Greek, means “the study of antiquity.” Archaeology is one of the four subfields of anthropology, together with biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and social/cultural anthropology. Archaeological remains can take many forms, two of the
Deconstructing Gender and Sex Issues of gender presence and interrelations for the past have increasingly been focused upon in the last two decades in the English-speaking archaeological community. Conkey and Spector are widely credited with the first paper to systematically examine the application of feminist approaches and insights to archaeological practice and theory. Studies were
Biblical or Near Eastern archaeology reconstructs the histories and societies of the Near East from human ancestors’ first migrations out of Africa 1.5 million years ago to the end of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 CE through archaeological evidence and historical documents. Geography and Climate Although the archaic geographic term Near East has been largely
The disability-adjusted life year (DALY) is a summary measure of population health that accounts for both mortality and nonfatal health consequences. DALYs were first developed for the primary purpose of quantifying the global burden of disease (GBD). In this context, the DALY was designed as the unit of analysis for measuring the relative magnitude of
This article is a review of methods for incorporating concerns for fairness or equity in economic evaluation of health care and public health programs. By way of background, the next two sections review the role of equity concerns relative to concerns for efficiency and cost-effectiveness in actual health policy on the one hand and in
In medical decision analysis and economic evaluation of health care, states of illness or disability (hereafter called ‘health states’) are commonly valued on a scale from zero to unity. A value of 0 is assigned to the state of being dead (or a state equivalent to being dead), whereas a value of 1 is assigned
A multiattribute utility (MAU) instrument consists of two parts: (1) a health questionnaire, and (2) a scoring formula which converts answers into an overall score. Each set of answers to the health questionnaire defines a ‘health state.’ The overall score reflects the strength of people’s preference for the state, and, consequently, it is a measure
A multiattribute utility (MAU) instrument consists of (1) a health questionnaire that establishes a health profile and (2) a scoring system that converts the multiattribute profile into an overall utility score. A generic MAU instrument can be used for all patients, whereas a condition-specific MAU instrument is intended only for patients with the condition of
The quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) is a unit of measurement for valuing health outcomes. The background for it is illustrated in Figure 1. In the diagram, length of life is expressed on the X-axis, whereas health status is expressed on the Y-axis on a continuum from dead to full health. The lower line shows the health
Decision making is a fact of life, both for individuals and for policy makers acting on behalf of society. All decisions result in costs and benefits. The purpose of economic evaluation is to compare these and determine whether the costs of a policy are justified by the benefits. Economic evaluations comprise two steps. First, a
For use in cost-utility or cost-effectiveness analysis (CUA or CEA), evaluations of health outcomes in terms of quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) require judgments of the quality of life in different health states. The quality of life of a state is often referred to as its ‘individual utility.’ There are two main sources for estimating a state’s
Cost-effectiveness analyses of health interventions and policies are often conducted using quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) as the metric for quantifying health outcomes. A related metric called disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) has been used to assess the burden of disease attributable to different causes as well as in cost-effectiveness analyses, especially those in low and middle-income settings.
The ‘willingness to pay’ (WTP) method was first applied in the health area in the famous study of WTP to avoid heart attacks, by Acton (1973). WTP for health is an issue in individual (personal) and societal (public) decision making about health care. The term usually refers to individuals’ willingness to spend money personally, i.e.
The scientific elite and the elite basis of scientific knowledge is trace able to the Greeks. Plato treated knowledge as a principle of social stratification that is distributed as talents across the population. Accordingly, education is about discovering the social role or function for which one has been biologically endowed. In a highly differentiated society
Science has never been at the forefront of political economy and usually only appears as an ”exogenous shock,” or is suppressed by an assumption within the theory of the firm of a given stock of scientific and/or technological knowledge from which firms make their choices and then employ them in producing a given volume of
Philosophers of the European Enlightenment defined science in opposition to culture or humanistic knowledge. Science was truth based on verifiable observation and certain logical procedures, and thus stood opposed to all traditional beliefs. Francis Bacon, who initiated the philosophical tradition of elaborating ”demarcation principles” to distinguish science from non science, differentiated science from all knowledge
Thomas Jefferson, quoted in Fischer’s Citizens, Experts, and the Environment (2001), said that wherever the people are well informed, they can be trusted with their own government. But, nowadays, who can claim to be well informed enough about science to govern it except the scientists themselves? In 1959, Sir Charles Snow put forward the thesis
It is commonly held that the declining power and popularity of religion that we see in almost all modern industrial societies owes much to the rise of science; science and religion are competitors in a zero sum game, with the former being vastly more persuasive. As US sociologist Robert Merton pointed out, many of the
The definition and measurement of risk is controversial and much in debate, with risk assessments made by scientists often differing from those of the lay public. Scientific measurements are based on logic and rationality. They tend to ignore or invalidate lay understandings of risk, not taking into account social, experiential, or perceptual influences. However, sociological
The precautionary principle is a regulatory approach, under conditions of scientific uncertainty, requiring that a new chemical or technology be regulated or banned until it is proven safe. This principle was developed in opposition to the dominant regulatory standard, which requires affirmative evidence of harm before regulatory action can be taken. These two approaches designate
The problem of demarcation – how to identify the unique and essential characteristics of science that distinguish it from other intellectual activities – has been addressed both as an analytical matter mainly by philosophers and epistemologists, and as a practical matter by sociologists and historians. The philosophical quest for demarcating science has advanced along different
Science seeks to describe, explain, and predict features of the natural and social worlds. Scientists try to develop theories or explanations of phenomena by means of producing bodies of empirical evidence that play a major role in determining whether theories are accepted, modified, or rejected. In general, scientists seek theories that are logically consistent, empirically
It is because the sciences, especially the natural sciences, were for so long, and by so many, taken to be divorced from culture that their great interpenetration with culture remains surprising and, in some circles, controversial. In recent decades, historians, sociologists, and anthropologists of science have documented many ways in which cultural influences have affected
Political communication is an interdisciplinary field with roots stretching back to Aristotle and Plato, who debated the meaning of democracy and society. Modern political communication research incorporates not only the field of communication, including journalism and rhetoric, but also political science, sociology, history, psychology, geography, and others. Political communication can mean many things. Put simply
During the Industrial Revolution, the English word “class” morphed from a general term for a division or group to a specific term for a position of rank within a social system based on economic wealth. Around the same time, the word “popular” began to be applied to communication and culture with meanings ranging from “liked
“Culture” is “one of the two or three most complicated words in the English language” according to Williams (1976, 87). Originally used to describe the process of tending, culture evolved as metaphor, as noun, and as a reference to a physical object. Today, culture is regarded as a unifying system, a worldview, a civilization, and