Personal Space Definition Personal space refers to the physical area surrounding an individual that is considered personal or private. Typically, when another person intrudes in this area, the individual experiences discomfort. A related concept, interpersonal distance, refers to the area that people keep between themselves and the interaction partner. As an individual’s personal space increases
The validity of inferences stemming from empirical research in industrial and organizational psychology and allied disciplines is a function of a number of factors, including research design. Research design has to do with the plan, structure, or blueprint for a study. The literature indicates that among the components of such a plan are (a) the
Self-Injurious Behavior (SIB) is a multifaceted and pervasive psychological phenomenon that demands comprehensive understanding and intervention. This article offers an in-depth exploration of SIB, encompassing its definition, diverse forms, and the emotional and psychological underpinnings that drive these behaviors. Additionally, it delves into the prevalence of SIB across different populations, from adolescents to those with
Personal space can be described as the amount of space around individuals that allows them to feel comfortable. People’s expectations and needs for personal space may differ based on race, ethnicity, gender, and/or social class. For some people, this may mean keeping others at arm’s length, whereas for others it may entail moving in very
Focus groups are one of the fundamental qualitative data-collection tools used in industrial and organizational psychology. According to R. A. Krueger (1994), a focus group is a carefully planned discussion that is designed to obtain perceptions about a defined area of interest in a permissive and nonthreatening environment. It can be used to explore a multitude
Shyness, a pervasive human trait, is a multifaceted psychological phenomenon with significant implications for individuals across the lifespan. This article provides an examination of shyness, beginning with a definition and its prevalence in society. It delves into the complex interplay of biological, psychological, and environmental factors that contribute to shyness, and highlights its consequences in
Power is a broad concept that is used in many contexts, including sociological and psychological realms. The term power has become so expanded and widely used that some believe it has lost strength in its use and value. Diverse conceptualizations of the power construct exist, which are based on the differing theories and philosophies that
The lens model originated in Egon Brunswik’s concept of probabilistic functionalism, which is primarily a theory of perception. Brunswik was convinced that the methods of psychological research during the first half of the 20th century were wrongheaded, especially with regard to the “rule of one variable,” which many held was the only way to do
While the decision to smoke is largely behavioral, there is evidence to suggest a genetic predisposition to smoking susceptibility. Genetic factors can influence an individual’s response to nicotine, making some adolescents more prone to addiction than others. Family history of smoking can increase the likelihood of teenage experimentation with tobacco products, indicating the importance of
Quality of life (QOL) is a concept that has been considered vital to counseling and psychotherapy services since the profession began. Clients seek counseling services to improve their QOL, and so QOL is of critical importance to both process and outcome in therapy. Although more than 20,000 articles referencing QOL appeared in the psychological literature
Linkage research identifies the relationship between employee perceptions of the work environment and objective measures of business performance (e.g., productivity) and other relevant organizational outcomes (e.g., customer satisfaction). Workplace perceptions are typically gathered through employee surveys, and measures of business performance are selected on the basis of what outcomes are relevant to the firm’s strategy.
Substance abuse remains a pervasive and complex issue with far-reaching consequences in society. This comprehensive article delves into the multifaceted aspects of substance abuse, including its prevalence, etiology, psychological and behavioral underpinnings, assessment and diagnosis, treatment and intervention strategies, prevention efforts, and legal and ethical considerations. Drawing on current research and evolving trends, it highlights
The term religion comes from the Latin religare, which means “to bind together or to express concern.” In modern times, religion has become a visible institution that provides an organizational structure for faith in the divine, sacred, or supernatural. In addition, there frequently are moral codes, ritual practices, worship, and celebrations associated with each religion
Longitudinal research involves the collection and analysis of comparable data at more than one point in time. The exact number of time points and the interval between time points depend on the nature of the investigation. A longitudinal design is desirable for many research investigations because it enables an assessment of change over time. The
Suicide is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon with profound global implications. This article delves into the critical dimensions of suicide from a psychological perspective, offering insights into its risk factors, causes, prevention, and intervention strategies. It explores the role of mental health, environmental, and interpersonal factors in suicide, along with diagnostic criteria, assessment tools, and
Resilience, or resiliency, is the ability to survive, and thrive from, stressful experiences while building up protective skills to manage future hardship. Psychological resilience involves cognitive, emotional, social, and physical skills. Researchers have identified many factors that facilitate resilience and healthy adaptation to negative events and threats. For example, strong interpersonal social skills foster subsequent
Observational techniques, a cornerstone of the qualitative research paradigm, can be divided into two main categories: participant and naturalistic observation. Naturalistic observation is a method of collecting information in a setting in which the behavior of interest occurs, typically unbeknownst to the targets of observation. Naturalistic observation is often used by ethnographers examining cultural behavior
This article on teen pregnancy delves into the multifaceted realm of adolescent parenthood from a psychological perspective. It provides a comprehensive exploration of the psychological factors contributing to teen pregnancy, the far-reaching consequences it imposes on young individuals, and the interventions and support systems designed to address this critical issue. By examining sociodemographic and individual
School refusal behavior refers to child-motivated refusal to attend school or difficulties remaining in classes for an entire day. The behavior applies to 5- to 17-year-old children who are completely absent from school, who skip classes or certain sections of a school day, who are chronically tardy to school, or who attend school under intense
Organizational surveys are also known as employee opinion surveys or employee attitude surveys. Most experts prefer to call them organizational surveys to clarify that the sponsor and user of such surveys is almost always the organization. Further, the people asked to complete such surveys may be employees at any or all levels, including top executives.
Violence in schools is a pressing issue with profound implications for students, educators, and communities. This article examines the prevalence, causes, consequences, prevention, and intervention strategies related to school violence. Delving into individual, family, and community factors contributing to violent behavior, it underscores the importance of fostering positive school environments and promoting mental health services.
Self-esteem is generally considered to be how individuals evaluate their self-worth and competence. This evaluation can be positive or negative. Having a positive sense of self or good self-esteem is linked to many positive behaviors, such as achievement, initiation, motivation, and good mental health. Not all researchers and clinicians, however, approach the study of the
Policy capturing has its roots in activities central to industrial-organizational psychology. Its origins lie in the work of the Personnel Research Laboratory at Lackland Air Force Base in the 1950s, and it achieved prominence in the broader field of psychology with the publication in 1960 of Paul Hoffman’s Psychological Bulletin paper, “The Paramorphic Representation of
This article explores the intricate intersection of psychological trauma and accidents within the realm of health psychology. It begins with an in-depth examination of the definition and significance of psychological trauma, setting the stage for understanding its profound impact on mental health in the context of accidents. The subsequent sections delve into the specific types
Spirituality, from the Latin spiritus, refers to a sense of, or belief in, something bigger than, beyond, or outside oneself. Individual spirituality is often seen as a connection among oneself, others, and that which is beyond oneself and others. In addition, some scholars have referred to spirituality as a holistic connection with the divine or
Historically, program evaluation has been used as a tool for assessing the merits of educational and governmental programs, where public funding demands a demonstration of accountability. The basic tenet underlying program evaluation that makes it so useful in this context is its reliance on methods that integrate science and practice to produce reliable and actionable
This article explores the intricate relationship between coping strategies and the psychological well-being of individuals following injury, within the framework of health psychology. The introduction delineates the significance of coping mechanisms in the context of health psychology, setting the stage for a comprehensive analysis. The first section delves into the psychological impact of injury, elucidating
Traditionally, the word spirituality has been used for concepts and experiences that either are religious or are analogous to it. More recently, there has been controversy concerning the meaning and application of the term spirituality as it is differentiated from religion and religiosity. Inasmuch as the largest body of research relevant to issues in counseling
Qualitative research is an approach to inquiry that refers to a broad umbrella domain of various research traditions and investigative and analytic practices employed by researchers in a wide range of subject disciplines. One way of understanding the variety is to understand qualitative inquiry from the perspective of three broad philosophical paradigms that represent various
This article explores the intricate relationship between Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and accidental injuries within the realm of health psychology. Beginning with a nuanced examination of PTSD’s nature, diagnostic criteria, and neurobiological underpinnings, the first section establishes a foundational understanding. The subsequent segment delves into the psychological consequences of accidental injuries, identifying common causes, impacts
An achievement test is any test designed to assess an individual’s attainment of a specific knowledge or skill in a specified content area within which the individual has received some level of instruction or training. However, achievement tests are often confused with aptitude tests. Aptitude tests may not differ in form from achievement tests, but
Quantitative research approaches increase our knowledge by gathering data that can be manipulated mathematically. This allows us to answer questions about the meanings of psychological concepts, as well as to deter-mine their levels and variability as well as the relationships among them. Quantitative research approaches may be contrasted with qualitative approaches, which tend to collect
This article delves into the intricate interplay between family dynamics and the process of injury recovery within the realm of health psychology. The introduction provides a contextual background, emphasizing the pervasive impact of injuries on individuals and their families. Following a discussion on the disruptive influence of injuries on established family roles and routines, the
Adaptive behavior is the extent to which an individual demonstrates the culturally established standards for effective personal independence and social responsibility needed for daily living. This includes how well an individual manages the demands of day-to-day functioning (e.g., hygiene, domestic chores), motor functioning (e.g., ambulation), and communication (e.g., receptive and expressive language). It also includes
One of the three basic experimental design types used in empirical research in industrial-organizational psychology and related disciplines is quasi-experimentation. Quasi-experimental designs are different from both randomized experimental designs and nonexperimental designs. In the process of describing the nature of quasi-experimental designs, we make reference to a number of issues having to do with the
This article on pain management post-injury delves into the intricate interplay between psychological factors and the experience of pain, offering a nuanced exploration of the cognitive, emotional, and perceptual dimensions influencing pain perception. Drawing from prominent pain theories such as the Gate Control Theory and Neuromatrix Theory, the article elucidates their implications for effective pain
In psychology, the term mood refers to a person’s emotional state. Mood is central to psychological health, and disturbances in mood are related to subsequent psychological maladjustment. Moods such as elation, joyfulness, and excitement, when experienced within normal ranges, enhance a person’s life and are associated with well-being. Moods such as anger, hostility, depression, and
For describing or testing hypotheses about a population, sampling a small portion of the population is often preferable to taking a census of the entire population. Taking a sample is usually less expensive and less time-consuming than taking a census and more accurate because more effort and care can be spent ensuring that the right
Rehabilitation Psychology, a pivotal subfield within health psychology, addresses the intricate interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors in the process of restoring individuals to optimal functioning. This article provides a comprehensive exploration of Rehabilitation Psychology, beginning with its definition and historical roots, emphasizing its integral role in the broader context of health psychology. Theoretical
The Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition (BASC-2) is used to facilitate differential diagnosis in individuals ages 2 to 25 years old. The BASC-2 comprises three forms: the Teacher Rating Scale (TRS), the Parent Rating Scale (PRS), and the Self-Report of Personality (SRP). The Teacher Rating Scale and the Parent Rating Scale have three
The word simulation refers to any procedure that is meant to imitate a real-life system. Simulations are especially useful in examining situations that are too complex, too difficult, or too costly to explore in the real world. The computer is often used for this purpose because it is able to efficiently model systems and process
Accident prevention and education play pivotal roles in the domain of health psychology, where a comprehensive understanding of the psychological factors influencing accidents is imperative. This article begins with an exploration of the significance of accident prevention and the integral role of education in mitigating potential risks. Delving into the psychology of accidents, the first
Behavior rating scales are one of the oldest assessment tools used in mental health, education, and research. These scales typically assess problem behaviors, social skills, and emotional functioning; are widely employed in the assessment of personality development, adaptive behavior, and social-emotional functioning; and aid in diagnostic decision making and in planning treatment and education. These
Verbal protocol analysis (VPA) is a qualitative, process-tracing technique whereby participants think aloud while engaging in a task, arriving at a decision, or making a judgment. Verbal protocols are typically content coded or examined in terms of the cognitive processes used. Although the use of VPA is quite rare in industrial and organizational psychology, some
This article explores the multifaceted effects of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) within the realm of health psychology. Commencing with a definition and contextualization of TBI, the introduction emphasizes its prevalence and underscores its significance within the field. The subsequent sections delve into the cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions of TBI effects, examining intricate nuances such
Behavioral observation is a widely used method of behavioral assessment. Unlike other methods of behavioral assessment, most of which rely on people’s perceptions of behavior, behavioral observation involves watching and recording the behavior of a person in typical environments (e.g., classrooms). The assumption is therefore that data collected are more objective than are perceptions. Most
Affirmative action has been one of the most controversial public policies of the past 40 years. A conceptual definition of affirmative action is any measure, beyond a simple termination of discriminatory practice, adopted to correct for past or present discrimination or to prevent discrimination from recurring in the future. In practice, organizational affirmative action programs
This article in health psychology explores the multifaceted dimensions of childhood accident trauma. The introduction delineates the significance of studying this phenomenon, offering an overview of its prevalence and impact on child development. The first section delves into the definition and types of childhood accidents, examining contributing factors and elucidating immediate as well as long-term
A clinical interview involves counselors asking individuals questions to gather pertinent information. In interviewing, therapists attempt to help individuals feel comfortable so that candid and relevant information is revealed. Clinical interviewing occurs throughout the counseling process but is typically a major component of the initial session. An initial interview focuses on gathering information. Therapists generally
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) of 1967 (amended in 1986) is a U.S. federal law that prohibits discrimination in employment against individuals who are at least 40 years old. It was enacted by the Congress to promote the employment of older people based on their ability and to prevent intentional and nonintentional forms
This article within the field of health psychology explores the intricate relationship between physical and psychological recovery, emphasizing their interdependence in the context of holistic well-being. The introduction defines physical and psychological recovery and underscores their paramount significance within health psychology. The subsequent sections delve into the physiological intricacies of physical recovery, elucidating cellular repair
The assessment of intelligence has a long and colorful history, and its development mirrors the development of psychology as a field. From the early work of Francis Galton and James McKean Cattell to the seminal contributions of Charles Spearman and David Wechsler to the contemporary work of Alan and Nadeen Kaufman, Jack Naglieri, and many
In 1990, Congress passed the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) to provide equal protection under the law to disabled citizens, who are not identified in the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 or 1991 as a protected group. The ADA covered various aspects of daily life for the disabled, which are addressed under the following titles:
This article explores the intricate relationship between aging and mental health within the framework of health psychology. The introduction establishes the significance of mental health in the context of aging, emphasizing the multifaceted nature of this phenomenon. The first body section delves into the biological aspects of aging, elucidating changes in brain structure and function
The study of psychotherapy has yielded important insights into the predictors of clinical improvement. One major focus of the psychotherapy outcome literature has been to determine the most efficacious treatment models or techniques. For example, is cognitive therapy (CT), in which therapists focus on helping clients identify and challenge irrational thoughts, more effective in treating
United States federal fair employment laws generally prohibit discrimination in employment on the basis of certain protected characteristics, including race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, and disability. However, the fair employment laws permit employers to discriminate based on a protected characteristic in rare situations where the characteristic is considered a bona fide occupational qualification
This article on cognitive decline in aging delves into the multifaceted aspects of this prevalent health concern within the purview of health psychology. The introduction outlines the significance of cognitive decline in the aging population and provides a succinct overview of the aging process and its impact on cognitive function. The three body sections explore
Community-based action research (C-BAR) is a relatively new addition to counseling and counseling psychology research. The research and interventions, or actions, occur at the community level, rather than with individuals, families, or small groups. Community is defined as a group linked by common interests, such as young women in a teen pregnancy program, migrant workers
The commonly accepted definition of comparable worth is that dissimilar jobs that are of equal worth to the organization (e.g., nurses and truck drivers) should be paid the same wage. The term comparable worth must be distinguished from related terms, such as equal pay for equal work. The latter term is associated with the U.S.
This article explores the multifaceted domain of psychosocial aspects of aging within the framework of health psychology. Beginning with a concise introduction delineating the significance of understanding the psychosocial dimensions of aging, the article delves into three main thematic sections. The first section investigates the profound influence of social factors on aging, unraveling the intricate
Computer-assisted testing is the use of computers to support assessment and testing processes. This entry focuses on the history, varieties, and future directions of computer-assisted testing. History Computer-assisted testing began in the early 1950s when optical scanners were adapted to read special answer sheets and score tests. This resulted in the widespread use of multiple-choice
Questions about moral and political philosophy necessarily entail a consideration of political economy, which comprises two fundamental and overlapping concerns: the relationship between government and business and the relationship between business and society. It is the second relationship that has spawned the notion of corporate social responsibility—which comprises a firm’s actions in that regard, or
This article explores the multifaceted domain of healthy aging strategies within the context of health psychology, emphasizing the interconnectedness of physical, mental, and emotional well-being. The introduction establishes the significance of healthy aging and provides an overview of the aging process, setting the stage for the subsequent exploration. The first body section delves into physical
The Conners’ Rating Scales—Revised (CRS-R) comprises a set of six standardized measures designed to evaluate behavioral symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD). The rating scales— each available in long and short form—are completed by teachers, parents, and adolescents. All items contained within the various CRS-R forms utilize a 4-point scale; these include 0 (not
Accessibility Definition Accessibility refers to the ease with which an idea or concept can be retrieved from memory. Accessible constructs are those that are quickly retrieved from memory. Concepts that are accessible are important because a concept must be activated to be useful in guiding behavior or in influencing judgments. Concepts that an individual has
This article explores the intersection of gerontology and psychology within the field of health psychology. Beginning with an elucidation of gerontology and its pivotal role in understanding the aging process, the article delves into the intricate biological and psychological changes that accompany aging, including cellular and neurological alterations, cognitive shifts, and emotional adjustments. Further, it
The continuous performance test (CPT) is one group of measures for the evaluation of attention as well as response inhibition (or disinhibition); Fleming, Goldberg, and Gold have described the CPT as the gold standard for measuring sustained attention. The original CPT was developed by Rosvold, Mirsky, Sarason, Bransome, and Beck in 1956 as a research
The phrase to discriminate has two interpretations: (a) to display prejudice toward members of a group through unjustified negative actions, and (b) to meaningfully differentiate between people on the basis of their characteristics. Discrimination of the second form involves the ability to ascertain the presence and degree of characteristics that distinguish one person from another.
This article delves into the intricate interplay between aging, illness, and coping within the realm of health psychology. The introduction sets the stage by highlighting the significance of aging and its implications on health, paving the way for a comprehensive exploration. The first section scrutinizes the physiological and cognitive changes associated with aging, elucidating their
Culture-free testing is far more hypothetical than real. It assumes, if not requires, there are no cultural influences in any measurement and assessment of an individual or group on some trait. This further suggests that measurement and assessment can be designed to only tap into true individual or group traits and not draw on any
Accountability Definition Accountability is the condition of having to answer, explain, or justify one’s actions or beliefs to another. It often includes the possibility that you will be held responsible and punished if your acts cannot be justified, or rewarded if your actions are justified. Accountability is a composite of numerous factors: being held responsible
This article in health psychology delves into the intricate landscape of age-related psychological disorders, emphasizing their significance in the broader context of human development and well-being. The introduction provides an overview of health psychology, articulating the importance of understanding disorders that manifest with age. The body of the article systematically explores aging processes, common psychological
Functional behavioral assessment (FBA) refers to a range of assessment strategies to identify variables that influence behavior in the natural environment. The purposes of FBA are to (1) define and describe problem behaviors, (2) predict when problem behaviors are likely and unlikely to occur, and (3) identify consequences that maintain the behavior (i.e., the functions
Actor-Observer Asymmetries Definition Social psychologists speak of an observer perspective when someone perceives, thinks about, or makes a judgment about another person, and they speak of the actor perspective when someone thinks or makes a judgment about himself or herself. So if Jared storms out the door and Evelyn wonders why he does that, Evelyn
This article in health psychology explores the intricate relationship between elder care and mental health within the aging population. The introduction defines elder care, underscores the critical importance of mental health in the elderly, and outlines the article’s purpose. The first section delves into the aging process, examining both biological changes in the aging brain
The Health Belief Model (HBM) was originally developed in the 1950s as a way of understanding apparent resistance to seeking preventive treatment in the form of inoculations and screenings for communicable diseases. It can be described as an organizing framework for predicting acceptance of public and individualized health behavior recommendations. Thus, it appears to have
The Equal Pay Act (EPA) was instituted in 1963 and was intended to prevent sex discrimination in wages. It is part of a larger architecture of fairness in wages known as the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). This entry will not cover FLSA, but good reviews of FLSA by Cristina Banks and Lisa Cohen, as
This article delves into the intricate relationship between longevity and life satisfaction, anchored within the realm of health psychology. The introduction sets the stage by elucidating the fundamental concepts of longevity and its pivotal role in health psychology. The subsequent exploration of factors influencing longevity encompasses biological, psychosocial, and environmental dimensions, elucidating the intricate interplay
The World Wide Web has had a substantial impact on research methodology in counseling psychology and in the social and behavioral sciences in general. Indeed, the Internet offers opportunities for research in content areas where traditional methodologies have struggled and special samples have previously been difficult to recruit. However, the Internet also presents many challenges
Alcohol Myopia Definition Alcohol myopia theory states that alcohol intoxication (getting drunk) decreases the amount of information that individuals can process. Consequently, when people are intoxicated, the range of information that they can pay attention to is restricted, such that intoxicated people are able to pay attention to only some of the information that could
This article explores the intricate relationship between aging and social support within the context of health psychology. The introduction delineates the significance of studying aging, introduces the multifaceted concept of social support, and establishes the central thesis focusing on the pivotal role of social support in aging well. The body of the article is divided
Intelligence is a general mental capability that involves reasoning, planning, solving problems, thinking abstractly, comprehending complex ideas, and learning quickly from experience. The need to operationalize and make useful the construct of intelligence in educational, clinical, and employment settings led to a proliferation of standardized intelligence tests. Standardization refers to the development of consistent administration
Ethics has to do with defining what is meant by right and wrong or good and bad, and with justifying according to some rational system what one ought to do or what sort of person one should be. As applied to the practice of industrial-organizational psychology, professional ethics concerns the moral appropriateness of our work
This article explores the intricate relationship between alcohol withdrawal and mental health within the realm of health psychology. Beginning with an overview of alcohol withdrawal and its prevalence amidst alcohol use disorders, the discussion delves into the physiological aspects, uncovering neurotransmitter imbalances, hormonal fluctuations, and cardiovascular effects. Subsequently, the psychological manifestations of alcohol withdrawal are
The terms language, speech, and communication are used interchangeably by most people. When children or adults are seen by a speech-language pathologist (SLP), however, each of these terms refers to specific behaviors that are assessed and treated differently. Language is a symbolic code organized by rule-governed combinations that are socially shared. Children learn to use
Life requires people to estimate uncertain quantities. How long will it take to complete a term paper? How high will mortgage rates be in five years? What is the probability of a soldier dying in a military intervention overseas? There are many ways to try to answer such questions. One of the most common is
This article explores the pivotal role of behavioral interventions in alcoholism within the domain of health psychology. The introduction outlines the prevalence and impact of alcoholism on both individuals and society, setting the stage for an examination of the effectiveness of behavioral interventions. The first section provides an overview of behavioral interventions, defining their scope
Psychological research has shown that memory is not a unitary construct. Instead, memory consists of a coordinated collection of processes and abilities that work together to enable individuals’ day-to-day functioning. Furthermore, one aspect of memory can be impaired while another remains intact. For that reason, psychologists do not rely on a single procedure for assessing
Ethics has to do with defining what is meant by right and wrong or good and evil (or bad) and with justifying according to some rational system what one ought to do or what sort of person one should be. As applied to the conduct of research with human participants, the ethics of research concerns
This article explores the intricate facets of alcohol dependence within the framework of health psychology. The introduction delineates the definition of alcohol dependence, its historical context, and the pervasive societal impact of this phenomenon. Etiological factors, encompassing genetic predispositions, neurobiological underpinnings, and psychosocial influences, are dissected in the second section. The article navigates through the
Mixed methodology research incorporates both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Qualitative research methods provide detailed descriptions about phenomena and may include interviews, observations, and analyses of documents, records, artifacts, photos, and film. Researchers choose this methodology when they are interested in a rich narrative description with an abundance of deep detail. Quantitative research methods, on
Many psychological terms have meanings similar to how those terms are used in everyday language. Such is the case with assimilation, which a plain old English dictionary defines as to absorb, digest, and integrate (usually into a culture), making disparate people/items similar. Its use in social psychology (across separate content domains) is similar; assimilation means
This article explores the intricate relationship between social factors and alcohol abuse within the realm of health psychology. Beginning with an overview of alcohol abuse as a pressing public health concern, the article delves into the profound influence of social environments, dissecting the role of family dynamics and peer pressures. Cultural factors and socioeconomic status
The Parenting Stress Index, 3rd Ed. (PSI) is a norm-referenced test developed by Richard R. Abidin. The PSI assesses for dysfunction in the parent-child relationship and is based on a theory that the level of stress in the parent-child dyad is the result of child, parent, and situational characteristics. The PSI attempts to identify parental
The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), which is intended to balance the demands of the workplace with the needs of families, became effective for most employers in August 1993. The passage of the FMLA represented a legislative reaction to dramatic changes in the U.S. workforce that had taken place over the previous 40 years.
Adolescent alcoholism poses a significant public health concern, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of its multifaceted determinants and consequences. This article delves into the complex landscape of alcoholism among adolescents, elucidating the interplay of biological, environmental, and psychosocial factors that contribute to its onset. Examining the genetic predisposition, neurobiological influences, family dynamics, peer pressure, and socio-economic
Problem-solving appraisal refers to a person’s self-appraisal of his or her problem-solving abilities and attitudes (i.e., his or her self-evaluated capacity to resolve problems). Ever since John Dewey’s influential 1933 publication of How We Think, there has been a strong focus in psychology on how people cope with their daily life problems and major life
Associative Networks Definition Associative networks are cognitive models that incorporate long-known principles of association to represent key features of human memory. When two things (e.g., “bacon” and “eggs”) are thought about simultaneously, they may become linked in memory. Subsequently, when one thinks about bacon, eggs are likely to come to mind as well. Over 2,000
This health psychology article delves into the intricate relationship between alcohol use and comorbid disorders, exploring their epidemiology, biological mechanisms, psychosocial factors, and treatment approaches. Beginning with a contextual overview of the prevalence of alcohol use disorders and their association with comorbid conditions, the article navigates through the intricate biological changes induced by alcohol, shedding
Appraisal of human characteristics—such as achievement, ability, proficiency, attitude, belief, or another construct—is routinely accomplished through administration of a test, which is itself often carefully developed and administered by standardized protocols. Examinees and other test users are usually interested only in the results yielded by a test administration; generally they are not attuned to characteristics
Labor law refers to the body of laws, regulations, and case law that governs unionization and collective bargaining in the workplace. It is distinguished from employment law, which deals with employment contracts, workplace discrimination, and other private legal issues. Most industrialized countries have enacted labor laws, but those laws may vary across countries or even
This article explores the cognitive effects of chronic alcoholism, a severe and persistent manifestation of alcohol use disorder with global implications. The introduction outlines the prevalence and significance of chronic alcoholism while emphasizing the importance of studying cognitive impairments in this context. The subsequent sections delve into specific cognitive domains affected, including memory deficits, executive
Psychopathology can be thought of as the expression of mental impairment in the form of psychological signs and symptoms. Specific disorders subsumed under psychopathology, while having specific signs and symptoms, have as their common thread a significant impairment in mental functioning that causes distress or disability. However, no one sign or symptom is usually sufficient
Attention Definition Attention refers to a wide variety of phenomena, including arousal, alertness, consciousness, and awareness. In general, however, attention is defined as both a process of concentration, such as trying to remember, under-stand, or search for information, and a mental resource that has limited capacity. Attention is selective in that it involves focusing on
This article explores the application of Motivational Interviewing (MI) in the context of alcoholism, a pervasive public health concern with significant individual and societal implications. The introduction provides a background on the prevalence and impact of alcohol use disorders, emphasizing the crucial need for effective interventions. The theoretical foundations of MI are outlined, encompassing its
Qualitative research may be broadly said to be research in which data in the form of words are collected and examined thematically. In other words, what is of interest to the researcher is an exploration, in a natural setting, of the meanings people bring to the qualities, nature, or essence of a phenomenon. The aim
The U.S. Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, which resulted in the formation of two federal agencies: the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). These agencies were established to reduce and prevent work-related injuries, illnesses, and deaths. Although both organizations focus
This article explores the intricate relationship between family dynamics and alcoholism within the realm of health psychology. The introduction elucidates the fundamental concepts of family dynamics and alcoholism, emphasizing the necessity of studying their intersection. The first section delves into the profound impact of alcoholism on family dynamics, elucidating the psychological repercussions on family members
Quantitative methodologies can be generally defined as the various procedures used to examine differences between groups and relationships between variables with respect to quantifiable phenomena. The list of potentially quantifiable phenomena is immense and includes any type of behavior, attitude, perception, knowledge domain, or other extant characteristic that can be measured numerically. Quantitative methodologies are
Attributional Ambiguity Definition Attributional ambiguity is a psychological state of uncertainty about the cause of a person’s outcomes or treatment. It can be experienced with regard to one’s own outcomes or treatment or those of another person, and with regard to positive as well as negative outcomes or treatment. It occurs whenever there is more
Self-esteem is one of the most widely studied variables in the social and behavioral sciences. A vast literature spanning many disciplines has shown that high self-esteem promotes behaviors, goals, and coping mechanisms that facilitate success in school, work, and relationships. High self-esteem impedes mental and physical health problems, delinquency, substance abuse, and antisocial behavior. Given
Race norming is the practice of converting individual test scores to percentile or standard scores within one’s racial group. In the process of race norming, an individual’s percentile score is not calculated in reference to all persons who took the test; instead, an individual’s percentile score is determined only in reference to others in the
One of psychology’s most important and enduring contributions to civilization is the development of the psychological test. Psychologists have invented and refined psychometric procedures (i.e., tests) for assessing a breathtakingly wide array of constructs. Among the topics reviewed in this volume of the Encyclopedia of Counseling, for example, are the assessment of academic achievement, adaptive
Sexual discrimination occurs when individuals are treated differently or receive different outcomes solely because they are men or women. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 made sexual discrimination illegal in the American workplace. Specifically, Title VII prohibits discrimination against any employee or applicant for employment because of his or her sex with
The translation and adaptation of psychological tests used for practice and research requires careful attention to issues of bias and equivalence. Thorough translation methods help reduce bias and enhance equivalence of multilingual versions of a test. Of equal importance is statistical verification of equivalence. Equivalence addresses the question of comparability of observations and test scores
Attribution Definition The term attribution has several distinct meanings. In the 1920s, Austrian philosopher and psychologist Fritz Heider originally referred to attribution as a central process in human perception that helped solve a philosophical puzzle of the time. According to this puzzle, the mind perceives objects that exist in the world, but the perception itself
Acculturation can be described as cultural change associated with social group movement, be it movement within or across nations, that results in persons who have different cultures intersecting. Since the 1990s, the immigrant population in the United States has increased by more than 13 million people. More than half of this immigrant population is from
Automatic Processes Definition Automatic processes are unconscious practices that happen quickly, do not require attention, and cannot be avoided. Automatic Processes Analysis Imagine you are driving a very familiar route, such as your daily route to school, the university, or your work. You mindlessly drive along various familiar roads and upon arrival, a friend asks
Acculturation or adaptation to a new culture involves changes in multiple areas of functioning (e.g., values, behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, etc.), and for individuals, families, and groups engaged in the acculturation process, these adjustments are often experienced as stressful. The stress that emerges from difficulties in acculturation is referred to as acculturative stress. Distinct from general
Psychologists generally describe sexual harassment at work as offensive, degrading, or harmful verbal or non-verbal behaviors that are of a sexual or gender-targeted nature. A variety of behaviors can be viewed as constituting sexual harassment. Examples include repeated requests for a romantic date despite rejection, as well as violent behaviors such as attempted or completed
A number of reports and studies have explored issues surrounding the education of African American, Latino/a, and other culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students in American school systems. Every CLD group has a different history in the United States. It is widely recognized that the educational experiences of African American students in public schools is
In a social or organizational context, prejudice refers to an attitude, usually negative, toward a person or a group of people because of their group membership. When this attitude is expressed behaviorally, the result is discrimination. At the core of prejudice are stereotypes and stereotype-based assumptions. The Stereotyping Process Although researchers have debated the precise
The term adaptation originally derives from the biological sciences as a phenomenon of person-environment fit. In psychology, adaptation is a process by which individuals or groups make necessary or desired changes—cognitive, behavioral, and affective—in response to new environmental conditions or demands in order to meet basic needs, function, and maintain a good quality of life.
Availability Heuristic Definition The availability heuristic describes a mental strategy in which people judge probability, frequency, or extremity based on the ease with which and the amount of information that can be brought to mind. For example, people may judge easily imaginable risks such as terrorist attacks or airplane crashes as more likely than the
Tests and other forms of assessment give important insight into key human characteristics that drive performance. These tools are used widely in both business and educational settings, with the goals of their use ranging from low stakes (such as personal insight and development) to extremely high stakes (such as selection or promotion into coveted job
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (CRA 1964) is a landmark piece of legislation that created the legal basis for nondiscrimination in housing, education, public accommodations, federally assisted programs, and employment. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination in employment based on an individual’s race, color, religion, sex, or ethnic origin.
Bad Is Stronger Than Good Definition Bad is stronger than good refers to the phenomenon that the psychological effects of bad things outweigh those of the good ones. Bad usually refers to situations that have unpleasant, negative, harmful, or undesirable outcomes for people, while good usually refers to situations that have pleasant, positive, beneficial, or
The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (Guidelines) were published in August 1978 as the result of a joint effort involving the governmental organizations responsible for enforcing equal employment opportunity laws: the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), Department of Labor (including the Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs [OFCCP]), Civil Service Commission, and Department of
Barnum Effect Definition The Barnum effect refers to personality descriptions that a person believes applies specifically to them (more so than to other people), despite the fact that the description is actually filled with information that applies to everyone. The effect means that people are gullible because they think the information is about them only
Base Rate Fallacy Definition Imagine that you meet Tom one evening at a party. He is somewhat shy and reserved, is very analytical, and enjoys reading science fiction novels. What is the likelihood that Tom works as a computer scientist? The answer depends on both the knowledge you have about Tom and the number of
Encopresis, a distressing condition characterized by the voluntary or involuntary soiling of undergarments beyond the age when bowel control is expected, has profound implications in the realm of school psychology. This article offers a comprehensive examination of encopresis, encompassing its definition, prevalence in school-age children, etiological factors, diagnostic procedures, and evidence-based interventions. Recognizing the multifaceted
Enuresis, a prevalent childhood disorder characterized by involuntary urination beyond the age when bladder control is expected, is the focus of this article. The introduction provides an overview of enuresis, its historical context, and its societal impact. The subsequent sections delve into the types of enuresis, including primary and secondary nocturnal enuresis and diurnal enuresis
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), a condition resulting from prenatal exposure to alcohol, presents a significant challenge to the field of school psychology. This article explores the world of FAS, providing a thorough exploration of its etiology and risk factors, clinical characteristics and diagnosis, consequences and long-term outcomes, as well as prevention and intervention strategies. FAS
This article provides an overview of Fragile X Syndrome, a genetic disorder that affects both physical and cognitive aspects of an individual’s life. This article explores the genetic underpinnings of the syndrome, discussing the molecular basis, inheritance patterns, and diagnostic methods. The subsequent section explores the clinical presentation and psychological implications of Fragile X Syndrome
HIV/AIDS, a global health crisis of immense significance, is explored comprehensively in this article. Beginning with an historical overview, it explores the etiology and modes of transmission, progressing to the pathophysiology of the disease. Part II delves into the clinical aspects of HIV/AIDS, covering diagnosis, clinical stages, and treatment. Part III shifts the focus to
Lead exposure poses a persistent threat to the cognitive and behavioral development of children, with profound implications for the field of school psychology. This article provides an examination of lead exposure, encompassing its historical context, cognitive and behavioral effects, and the crucial role of school psychologists in identifying and addressing this public health concern. Drawing
Childhood obesity is a pressing public health concern with far-reaching implications. This article explores the issue of childhood obesity from a psychological and school psychology perspective, adhering to APA style. The introduction provides an overview of the problem’s definition, prevalence, and significance, emphasizing the critical need to address this issue. The subsequent sections delve into
Otitis Media, a prevalent middle ear condition, holds significant implications in the field of school psychology. This article provides a comprehensive exploration of otitis media, encompassing its etiology, risk factors, and prevalence, shedding light on its impact on child development and school performance. Additionally, it discusses preventive measures, diagnostic methods, and intervention strategies. School psychologists
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by impaired phenylalanine metabolism. This article provides an overview of PKU, encompassing its etiology, clinical presentation, neuropsychological and cognitive implications, as well as the psychological and social aspects it entails. The discussion further delves into dietary management and treatment options, including emerging therapies, alongside insights into educational
Pica, a complex and enigmatic behavioral disorder characterized by the consumption of non-nutritive substances, has captured the attention of researchers and clinicians alike. This article delves into the world of Pica, examining its historical context, prevalence, and relevance in the field of psychology. Through a detailed exploration, the article elucidates the multifaceted etiology of Pica
Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS) is a complex genetic disorder with profound implications in the field of psychology. This article provides an in-depth exploration of PWS, encompassing its clinical manifestations, diagnostic criteria, etiology with a focus on genetics, and the intricate psychological and behavioral challenges faced by individuals living with PWS. The article underscores the critical role
Seizure disorders, characterized by abnormal electrical activity in the brain, are a critical subject within the realm of psychology. This article explores the multifaceted domain of seizure disorders, encompassing their definition, prevalence, and neurological underpinnings. Expanding further, the discussion explores the intricate web of causes and risk factors, emphasizing epilepsy as a primary instigator, and
Tourette’s Syndrome, a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by motor and vocal tics, has intrigued researchers and clinicians for decades. This article explores the intricate world of Tourette’s, offering a multidimensional understanding of its etiology, clinical presentation, psychosocial impact, assessment, treatment, and long-term outcomes. Explored within are the genetic and neurological underpinnings, co-occurring conditions, the intricate
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is a significant concern within the field of psychology, impacting individuals across diverse demographics. This article explores the causes and risk factors associated with TBI, delves into the pathophysiology and symptoms of this condition, elucidates the various psychological assessment and intervention approaches, and examines the long-term psychological impact and outcomes. By
Paul E. Meehl was an intellect and Renaissance man who made enduring contributions in a diverse array of subject areas in psychology and beyond. In psychology, he was best known for his work in measurement, philosophy of science, biological bases of schizophrenia, statistics, and actuarial approaches to assessment and prediction. He also published in areas
Cross-cultural assessment is a vital dimension of contemporary psychology, marked by the necessity of understanding and addressing cultural diversity in the assessment process. This article explores the foundations, methods, and challenges of cross-cultural assessment, emphasizing the critical role of cultural competence in effective psychological evaluation. The introduction sets the stage by highlighting the importance of
John C. Norcross is a professor of psychology and distinguished university fellow at the University of Scranton and an internationally recognized authority on behavior change and psychotherapy. Norcross received his B.A. degree in psychology at Rutgers University (1980) magna cum laude, and his M.A. (1981) and Ph.D. (1984) degrees in clinical psychology from the University
In today’s increasingly diverse educational landscape, the practice of cross-cultural consultation in school psychology has emerged as an indispensable means of promoting inclusivity and enhancing educational outcomes. This article delves into the multifaceted realm of cross-cultural consultation, emphasizing its vital role in addressing the challenges that cultural diversity presents in educational settings. We define cross-cultural
Samuel H. Osipow is one the pioneers of vocational psychology in the United States. Graduating with a Ph.D. from Syracuse University in 1959, Osipow worked for 6 years as a counseling psychologist at Pennsylvania State University before taking a faculty position in the Psychology Department at Ohio State University. He spent the bulk of his
Multicultural education is a vital response to the increasing cultural diversity in contemporary societies. This article explores the historical development and theoretical foundations of multicultural education, highlighting the pivotal role of cultural competence and identity in the learning process. It explores strategies for implementing multicultural education in schools, addressing both its benefits, such as academic
School leavers in the late 19th century in the United States faced a multitude of unfamiliar job opportunities in the developing industrial economy of the Gilded Age. Although a few schools attempted to provide occupational guidance, only one individual, Frank Parsons, established the first vocational guidance clinic and articulated the basic principles of vocational guidance
Friendships play a pivotal role in human development and well-being. This article delves into the multifaceted world of friendships, examining their evolution from early childhood through adolescence and adulthood. It explores the crucial functions of friendships, encompassing emotional support, social development, and cognitive growth, and delves into the myriad factors that influence these connections, from
Paul Bodholdt Pedersen, considered by most psychologists to be the founder and major contributor to multicultural psychology and cross-cultural counseling and psychotherapy, was born on May 19, 1936, in Ringsted, Iowa. Located in a rural farming community in northern Iowa near the Minnesota border, the tiny community of Ringsted provided Pedersen with a strong, stable
Factor analysis is a statistical procedure for describing the interrelationships among a number of observed variables. Factor analysis is used to measure variables that cannot be measured directly, to summarize large amounts of data, and to develop and test theories. There are two broad categories of factor analysis: exploratory and confirmatory. Exploratory factor analysis techniques
Peer mediation, a pivotal component of school psychology, embodies the innovative use of students as mediators to resolve conflicts among their peers. This article explores the theoretical foundations of peer mediation, drawing from conflict resolution theories, social cognitive theory, and empowerment theory. It delves into the essential steps for implementing peer mediation programs, emphasizing the
Working at a time when few women were active as researchers, Anne Roe provided a different perspective on career choice and adjustment and is now credited as being the forerunner of a psychodynamic perspective. Roe was particularly interested in individual psychological differences between people and utilized research and statistical methods. From the 1930s, she engaged
An important criterion on which psychological measures are judged is the degree to which their scores reflect persons’ true standing on an attribute of interest, such as cognitive ability and conscientiousness. Measurement theories recognize that scores on a measure reflect at least two components: a true component and an error component. Although theories differ in
Peer pressure, a pervasive influence in the lives of adolescents, plays a pivotal role in the field of school psychology. This article provides an in-depth exploration of peer pressure, categorizing it into normative social influence, informational social influence, and coercive peer pressure. It delves into the various factors that render adolescents more or less vulnerable
Carl Ransom Rogers developed a robust humanistic psychological theory and therapy that established him as a preeminent exponent of and eloquent spokesperson for psychology’s third force (humanism). In doing so he transformed the ways in which the counseling process is conceptualized and conducted. He embarked upon an ambitious experimental campaign to subject his theoretical and
Incremental validity is a predictor’s ability to explain an outcome, beyond all other predictors. For example, assume predictor A accounts for 25% of the variance in an outcome of interest and, when entered separately, predictor B also accounts for 25% of the variance. Because their influences most certainly overlap, it is also important to understand
The DARE (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) Program, a prominent initiative in school psychology, has played a significant role in drug prevention education for several decades. This article provides an examination of the program, encompassing its historical development, curriculum components, efficacy, and surrounding controversies. By analyzing its evolution, effectiveness, and the broader landscape of drug education
Carol D. Ryff is Director of the Institute on Aging and Professor of Psychology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. She received her doctoral degree in 1978 from The Pennsylvania State University in Human Development and is a fellow of the American Psychological Association’s Adult Development and Aging division (APA Division 20) and the Gerontological Society
A frequent goal of collecting data is to allow inferences to be drawn about a population from a sample. In such cases, inferential statistics provide the bases on which to draw such conclusions that go beyond the observed data. An example of a common inference is evaluating the likelihood that an observed effect (e.g., difference
Positive Behavior Support (PBS) is a pivotal concept in school psychology, dedicated to enhancing the learning environment by fostering positive behaviors and minimizing challenging ones. This article delves into the historical development of PBS, tracing its roots and the influential figures who have shaped it over time. It also elucidates the key principles and components
Martin Elias Peter Seligman was born August 12, 1942, in Albany, New York. As an undergraduate, he majored in philosophy at Princeton University, and he took his Ph.D. in psychology at the University of Pennsylvania under the supervision of Richard Solomon. Except for sabbatical leaves and a brief stint teaching at Cornell University, Seligman has
Item response theory (IRT), also called latent trait theory, is a psychometric theory that was created to better understand how individuals respond to individual items on psychological and educational tests. The underlying theory is built around a series of mathematical formulas that have parameters that need to be estimated using complex statistical algorithms. These parameters
Resilience, a fundamental psychological trait, plays a pivotal role in the well-being and success of school-age children. This article explores the concept of resilience within the context of school psychology, delving into its definition, historical roots, and theoretical underpinnings. Additionally, it examines protective factors, both within and beyond school settings, that promote resilience among students.
Having made contributions that were as profound as they were practical, Burrhus Frederic (B. F.) Skinner was one of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. Born on March 20, 1904, in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, he developed an early penchant for inventing and experimenting, was a keen observer of biology and behavior, and read Francis
Measurement scales refer to the types of information provided by numbers. Each scale (i.e., nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio) provides a different type of information. Knowing which scale applies in a particular situation is necessary to accurately interpret numbers assigned to people, objects, or events. Ignorance of scales’ distinguishing characteristics can lead to improper treatment
This article on evidence-based interventions in school psychology explores the fundamental principles, implementation strategies, and practical examples of evidence-based practices. It provides an in-depth examination of the historical foundations of evidence-based interventions, emphasizing the ethical considerations inherent in this approach. The article guides readers through the process of identifying and addressing student needs through empirical
Edward Kellogg Strong, Jr., born in 1884 in Syracuse, New York, was the first author of the Strong Interest Inventory (Strong). At the age of 40, Strong took a position in the School of Business at Stanford University where he began his research in interest measurement. He remained at Stanford until his retirement in 1949.
Organizational researchers frequently propose and test hypotheses that involve relationships between variables. Beyond simple bivariate associations, more complex models may involve third variables that provide greater explanatory power. Two common types of explanatory mechanisms are mediator and moderator variables. Importantly, mediator and moderator variables have fundamentally different effects in causal models and must be kept
Qualitative research in psychology is a versatile and indispensable methodology characterized by its in-depth exploration of human phenomena within their natural context. This article provides an overview of qualitative research, outlining its defining characteristics, data collection and analysis methods, and diverse applications in psychology. Despite its merits, qualitative research faces criticisms and challenges that demand
Stanley R. Strong is an influential counseling psychologist who characterized his life and career as devoted to the construction and evaluation of hypothetical models of underlying realities. Born in 1939 in Butte, Montana, Strong completed his bachelor’s degree at the University of Montana and his Ph.D. at the University of Minnesota in 1966. Influenced by
Phenomenal Self Definition The phenomenal self reflects information about oneself that is in a person’s awareness at the present time. This salient self-knowledge influences people’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. The phenomenal self at any given moment is only a portion of all of the self-relevant information an individual has stored in memory. The reason for
Single-case experimental design, a versatile research methodology within psychology, holds particular significance in the field of school psychology. This article provides an overview of single-case experimental design, covering its definition, historical development, and key concepts. It delves into various types of single-case designs, including AB, ABA, and Multiple Baseline designs, illustrating their applications within school
Derald Wing Sue is undoubtedly one of the most prominent figures in the area of multicultural counseling and research. Throughout his career he has challenged the ethnocentric monoculturalism of Western psychology. He pioneered the field of multicultural counseling through his vision, courage, and tireless efforts. Among his contributions are conducting research on Asian Americans’ mental
As scholars of human behavior in organizations, industrial and organizational psychologists often find themselves trying to understand phenomena that are inherently nested, hierarchical, and multilevel. From private industry to universities to the military to nearly all forms of government, organizations comprise hierarchical structures that loosely resemble pyramids (even if the structures resemble flat pyramids, they
This article on discipline in school psychology provides an examination of the concept of discipline in educational settings, rooted in the principles of psychology. The article begins with an introduction that underscores the crucial role of discipline in schools and proceeds to explore the theoretical foundations of discipline, encompassing historical developments and relevant psychological theories.
Stanley Sue is a pioneering scholar in the field of Asian American psychology and ethnic minority psychology. He was born in 1944 in Portland, Oregon, as the third son of Chinese immigrant parents. He received his Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Oregon in 1966 and his doctoral degree in clinical psychology from
Positive Illusions Definition Positive illusions refers to a set of three related beliefs that characterize the way people think about (1) themselves, (2) their ability to control environmental events, and (3) their future. Instead of being evenhanded or balanced between the good and the bad, people are unrealistically positive: They believe they have many more
Expulsion, a disciplinary action often employed in the realm of school psychology, poses multifaceted challenges within the educational system. This article explores the causes of expulsion, including academic, behavioral, and legal factors, and scrutinizes the far-reaching consequences that expelled students encounter in terms of their mental health, academic achievement, and future prospects. Moreover, it delves
There are two grand paradigms in vocational psychology. The first perspective for understanding vocational behavior concentrates on how individual differences in ability and interests relate to occupational requirements, routines, and reward. This paradigm, called the matching model, asserts that the goodness of fit between an individual’s abilities and a job’s requirements determines the worker’s occupational
As researchers who examine phenomena within and around organizations, industrial and organizational psychologists must deal with nested data. Consider that individuals are nested within job categories, job categories are nested within work groups, work groups are nested within departments, departments are nested within organizations, and organizations are nested within nations and cultures. Furthermore, people do
This article on retention and promotion in school psychology examines the multifaceted decision-making process surrounding whether students should be retained in their current grade or promoted to the next level. It delves into the complex interplay of factors influencing this decision, such as academic performance, psychological considerations, socioeconomic status, and cultural nuances. The article explores
Louis L. Thurstone, who spent most of his career at the University of Chicago before founding a major psycho-metric lab at the University of North Carolina, made significant contributions to psychometrics, statistics, and the study of human intelligence during his long career. Thurstone developed methods for scaling psychological measures, assessing attitudes, and test theory, among
Psychological Entitlement Definition Psychological entitlement refers to a general belief that one deserves more or is entitled to more than others are. Psychological entitlement is defined as a general belief because it is consistent over time and across different situations. Context and Importance of Psychological Entitlement The concepts of entitlement and deservingness play an important
Suspension is a disciplinary measure with profound implications for students’ psychological well-being and academic success. This article explores the theoretical foundations, psychological and academic impacts, and the myriad factors contributing to suspension in school settings. It delves into the influences of school policies, socioeconomic and demographic disparities, family dynamics, and community support. Additionally, it examines
Howard E. A. (Tony) Tinsley, born July 20, 1940, in Iola, Kansas, is an internationally recognized expert on leisure and vocational psychology and a leading authority on expectations about counseling and research methodology. His more than 150 publications rank him as one of the most prolific scholars in counseling psychology. His contributions to professional psychology
In 1959, Donald T. Campbell and Donald W. Fiske published an article in the Psychological Bulletin that, approximately 30 years later, would become the most cited article in the history of the social sciences. By 1992, it had been cited more than 2,000 times by other authors, and a 2005 search of the Social Sciences
Ability grouping in education, a longstanding practice with a complex history, entails classifying students into groups based on their perceived academic abilities. This article examines the various forms of ability grouping, such as homogeneous and heterogeneous grouping, tracking, and flexible grouping, and delves into the advantages, including personalized instruction and improved teacher effectiveness, as well
Terence J. G. Tracey, an American counseling psychologist, is a leading researcher and theorist who has made important contributions to psychologists’ understanding of vocational interests, vocational interest development, and the assessment of vocational interest structure. Tracey has also contributed significantly to psychologists’ understanding of the counseling process from an interpersonal perspective, and to methodological approaches
The nomological network is a tool for construct validation (i.e., gathering evidence about the meaning) of psychological measures. For example, construct validation of job performance ratings by supervisors should indicate what the ratings really mean, or how accurately they reflect actual performance levels. The goal is to link observable measurements to unobservable theoretical constructs. In
Class size, a pivotal topic in educational psychology, profoundly shapes the learning experiences of students in classrooms across the globe. This article delves into the multifaceted dimensions of class size, addressing its effects on student learning and development, factors influencing class size decisions, strategies for optimizing class size, and the evolving landscape of educational policies.
Joseph E. Trimble is a pioneer and distinguished psychologist widely known for his work in cultural diversity, multicultural counseling, and issues related to culture and psychology. He has published extensively in peer review journals, books, and technical reports and has an extensive list of presentations at professional conferences. His contributions to service are extensive, and
Schemas Definition A schema is a cognitive representation of a concept, its associated characteristics, and how those characteristics are interrelated. Social schemas are representations of social concepts and may include notions of physical appearance, traits, behavioral information, and functions. Social schemas may be relatively concrete (e.g., one’s fifth-grade teacher) or abstract (e.g., likable person). When
The classroom climate, a multifaceted concept encompassing the interplay of various environmental, interpersonal, and psychological factors within educational settings, holds profound implications for the experiences and outcomes of both students and educators. This comprehensive article delves into the components that shape classroom climate, explores its powerful influence on student learning, motivation, and well-being, and offers
Leona Elizabeth Tyler was born in Chetek, Wisconsin, on May 10, 1906; she died at the age of 86 in Eugene, Oregon, on April 23, 1993. By her own admission, an established field of counseling psychology did not exist when she began her full-time graduate training at the University of Minnesota in 1938, but Tyler
Self-Attribution Definition Self-attribution refers to the process through which people determine the antecedents and consequences of their behaviors. Because people do not have access to their internal states—attitudes, beliefs, emotions, motives, traits—they must infer these from observations of their own behaviors and the situational contexts in which they occurred. Historical Background of Self-Attribution Theoretical and
The article delves into the multifaceted world of grades, a fundamental aspect of the education system, and their integral role in school psychology. Beginning with an exploration of the historical roots and evolution of grading systems, it comprehensively dissects the components and intricacies of grading, including the grading scale, teacher involvement, and associated controversies. The
The professional accomplishments of Melba J. T. Vasquez are innumerable. Clinical practice, leadership, advocacy, education, and research are among the areas in which she has excelled. Vasquez’s work has positioned her not only as a pioneer within the field of psychology but also as a true example of determination and perseverance. Having grown up and
Normative and ipsative measurements are different rating scales usually used in personality or attitudinal questionnaires. Normative measures provide inter-individual differences assessment, whereas ipsative measures provide intraindividual differences assessment. Normative measurement is very popular and prominent in the United States, and ipsative measurement is getting wider use in Europe and Asia. Normative measurement usually presents one
In this article, we delve into the multifaceted domain of homework within the context of school psychology. Beginning with a historical perspective and definition, we explore the intricate role of homework in education, considering both its cognitive and non-cognitive benefits, as well as its influence on academic achievement. However, the article also navigates through the
Clemmont Eyvind Vontress, American counselor educator and psychologist, is recognized generally as a pioneer in cross-cultural counseling. He first used the concept of cross-cultural counseling in a speech at the University of Virginia in 1968. He has contributed to the literature on the impact of culture on counseling, existential psychotherapy, and traditional healing in Africa
Self-awareness is often defined in terms of an ability to engage in reflective awareness. According to most theorists, this requires certain types of cognitive abilities. Even in its most primitive form (visual self-recognition and the ability to recognize oneself in a mirror), self-awareness appears to be restricted to a small subset of animals including humans
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) is a pivotal legislative landmark in the American educational landscape. This article delves into the historical context that led to the enactment of NCLB, illuminates its key provisions, and scrutinizes its profound educational and psychological implications. It traces the legislative history and bipartisan support that shaped
W. Bruce Walsh is one of the leading researchers and writers in the field of vocational psychology. Walsh was born into a family deeply committed to education. He is one of 11 members of his family to attend Pennsylvania State University. Walsh graduated from there with a B.S. degree in Economics from the Smeal College
Reliability can be defined as the extent to which scores of a measure are free from the effect of measurement error. Measurement error is reflected in random deviations of the scores observed on a measure from respondents’ true scores, which are the expected values of respondents’ scores if they completed the measure an infinite number
Parent-teacher conferences play a vital role in the realm of school psychology, serving as a cornerstone for effective communication and collaboration between parents and educators. This article delves into the multifaceted world of these conferences, starting with an exploration of their historical roots and evolving into the structure, benefits, challenges, and future trends in this
Bruce Edward Wampold (born November 25, 1948, in Olympia, Washington) is widely recognized for his research on psychotherapy process and outcome and his development of research methods and statistics. Wampold received his B.A. in mathematics from the University of Washington and taught junior and senior high school mathematics and coached wrestling for several years. He
Self-Complexity Definition People differ substantially in how extremely they react to good and bad events in their lives. Some people experience dramatic swings in mood and self-appraisal in response to the ups and downs of life, whereas others do not. Some experience adverse mental and physical health consequences of stressful events, but others do not.
School climate, a multifaceted concept, plays a pivotal role in educational settings, shaping students’ experiences and outcomes. This article provides a comprehensive examination of the factors influencing school climate, including leadership, student body dynamics, faculty and staff interactions, the physical environment, and curriculum and teaching practices. Additionally, it delves into the various methods and tools
David Wechsler, a Jewish American psychologist best known for his contributions to intelligence theory and intellectual assessment, was born in Lespedi, Romania, January 12, 1896. When he was 6, his family moved to New York City. Wechsler earned a bachelor’s degree from City College of New York in 1916, a master’s degree from Columbia University
Statistical power (SP) refers to the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis (a hypothesis of no difference) when it is actually false. When an organizational researcher retains (fails to reject) a false null hypothesis, he or she is likely to conclude, for example, that the organizational intervention did not positively affect productivity or that a
This article on statewide tests in school psychology explores the historical development, types, administration, and implications of statewide tests within the field of education. It delves into the multifaceted world of standardized testing, providing a comprehensive overview of its impact on educational policies and practices. The article addresses both the critical role of statewide tests
David J. Weiss is widely recognized as one of the founders of computerized adaptive testing (CAT) and for directing the development of instruments to assess work adjustment. He earned his B.A. in psychology from the University of Pennsylvania in 1959 and his Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota in 1963. He has spent his entire
Self-Concept Clarity Definition Some individuals possess a clear sense of who they are and where they are going in life. They are aware of their strengths and weaknesses, the nature of their personalities, and where they stand on important attitudes and values. Other individuals have less clear self-concepts. These individuals may not be confident in
This article offers an exploration of the U.S. Department of Education (DOE), its historical origins, organizational structure, and profound impact on the American education system. Delving into the DOE’s establishment within the broader historical context of U.S. educational policy, it illuminates the agency’s pivotal role in shaping educational initiatives. From its various offices and functions
Joseph L. White, born in 1932 in Lincoln, Nebraska, is a well-known African American professor, psychologist, activist, scholar, researcher, consultant, educator, and mentor who revolutionized traditional European American psychology by setting the stage and foundation for what is now known as cross-cultural psychology and multicultural counseling. White received his undergraduate and master’s degrees in psychology
Self-control (also commonly referred to as self-regulation) is the ability to control one’s thoughts, emotions, urges, and behaviors. A person might exert self-control, for example, by trying to stop thinking abou to what many people refer to as self-discipline, willpower, or self-change. Although self-control can be regarded as an act, the capability for it is
This article on zero tolerance in school psychology explores the multifaceted landscape of zero tolerance policies within the educational system, tracing their historical evolution, psychological and social implications, and alternative approaches. This examination delves into the origins of zero tolerance, highlighting the rationale behind its implementation while addressing criticisms and controversies. It investigates the profound
Edmund Griffith Williamson was born on August 14, 1900, in Rossville, Illinois. In 1925, he received a B.A. degree from the University of Illinois. He received a Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Minnesota in 1931. Williamson joined the faculty at the University of Minnesota in 1931 as assistant professor of psychology and was
Validation Definition In the broadest sense, validation refers to the process of establishing the truth, accuracy, or soundness of some judgment, decision, or interpretation. In industrial and organizational psychology, validation generally focuses on the quality of interpretations drawn from psychological tests and other assessment procedures that are used as the basis for decisions about people’s
In this article on charter schools, we explore the foundational principles, characteristics, and historical evolution of these educational institutions. By comparing charter schools to traditional public schools, we highlight their autonomy and flexibility in curriculum and operations, along with exemplary case studies. Subsequently, we delve into the educational impact and outcomes of charter schools, analyzing
Black racial identity development (BRID) theory explains the processes by which Black people (the term Black is used here, rather than African American, to reflect the terminology in models of identity development) develop a healthy sense of themselves as racial beings and of their Blackness in a toxic sociopolitical environment. BRID is generally viewed as
Self-Deception Definition Self-deception is the act of lying to yourself. You have likely noticed this puzzling behavior in others, that is, cases in which people apparently believe something that they must know is false. This behavior does not include exaggeration, faking, or simple lying—those are cases in which the individual is well aware of uttering
This article on full-service schools offers a comprehensive examination of the concept and implementation of full-service schools, which serve as a pivotal nexus for educational, health, and social services for students and their communities. This article delves into the historical evolution of full-service schools, their fundamental principles, and their impact on academic outcomes, social development
Ethnic identity, broadly defined, is a dynamic and multidimensional construct that represents the part of one’s self-concept that is derived from a sense of belonging and commitment to a particular ethnic group. Other key components of ethnic identity include self-identification, the importance of ethnicity in one’s life, ethnic group affiliation, positive feelings and attitudes toward
Self-Defeating Behavior Definition For social psychologists, a self-defeating behavior is any behavior that normally ends up with a result that is something the person doing the behavior doesn’t want to happen. If you are trying to accomplish some goal, and something you do makes it less likely that you will reach that goal, then that
The Head Start Program, a cornerstone of early childhood education in the United States, has a rich history marked by its inception during the War on Poverty. This article explores the program’s evolution, illuminates its fundamental goals in addressing the needs of disadvantaged children, and highlights its profound psychological impact. Research indicates that Head Start
Self-Concept Definition Self-concept refers to people’s characteristic ideas about who they are and what they are like. Although psychologists often talk about the self-concept, a person’s self-concept typically consists of a loose collection of ideas rather than a single unified conception of the self. The self-concept is grounded in subjective experience. This means that a
Validity Definition Validity refers to the correctness of the inferences that one makes based on the results of some kind of measurement. That is, when we measure something, we need to ask whether the measurements we have taken accurately and completely reflect what we intended to measure. For example, inferences about individual differences in people’s
This article provides a comprehensive overview of the institution of high school, examining its historical evolution, organizational structure, and curriculum. It delves into the pivotal role of high school in the psychosocial development of adolescents, discussing the challenges and support systems related to social and emotional well-being. Furthermore, the article explores the educational outcomes of
The concept of identity has been defined as an internalized psychic system that integrates an individual’s inner self and the outer social world into a congruent whole. The integration of a personal self and social outer world has been viewed as a developmental process and one that, according to Erik Erikson, requires the individual to
Self-Disclosure Definition Self-disclosure refers to the process of revealing personal, intimate information about oneself to others. Through self-disclosure, two individuals get to know one another. Self-disclosure is considered a key aspect of developing closeness and intimacy with others, including friends, romantic partners, and family members. However, self-disclosure also functions as a way for people to
This article on middle school delves into the intricate intersection of developmental and educational psychology within the context of early adolescence. It provides an overview of the cognitive, emotional, and social changes occurring during the middle school years, emphasizing their profound implications for educational strategies. The article explores pertinent theories in developmental and educational psychology
Racial identity is a dynamic sociopolitical construction and assists in the understanding of within-group differences of people of different races. Racial identity development is relevant to all racial groups and incorporates perspectives of a person’s view of self with regard to his or her own racial group and other racial groups. Racial identity is an
Self-Efficacy Definition Self-efficacy is defined as people’s beliefs in their capabilities to produce desired effects by their own actions. Self-efficacy theory maintains that self-efficacy beliefs are the most important determinants of the behaviors people choose to engage in and how much they persevere in their efforts in the face of obstacles and challenges. Self-efficacy theory
Montessori Schools, rooted in the pioneering work of Dr. Maria Montessori, stand as a distinctive educational model with profound implications for school psychology. This article explores the historical development and foundational principles of Montessori education, elucidating its impact on child development and psychological well-being. Drawing from the synergy between Montessori and contemporary educational psychology, it
Vocational identity and career identity are related, but vocational identity as a concept extends beyond career identity. Career identity is indicative of the current career being pursued, whereas vocational identity represents an identity related to work over a long term and is more stable as one develops and becomes more confident in his or her
Self-Enhancement Definition People engage in self-enhancement whenever they seek, interpret, or distort evidence about themselves in a way designed to maintain, create, or amplify a positive self-image. Self-enhancement is cognitive or interpersonal activity aimed at boosting beliefs that one is a lovable and capable human being. A related concept is motivated reasoning, which is thought
This article on accommodation in school psychology, explores the multifaceted concept of accommodation within educational contexts. It delves into the theoretical underpinnings of accommodation, encompassing cognitive and psychological processes, historical perspectives, and its intersection with prominent learning theories. The article then scrutinizes the varied types of accommodation and their associated strategies, emphasizing the distinction between
White racial identity development (WRID) theory describes how White individuals develop a sense of themselves as racial beings, acknowledge the realities of structural racism and White privilege, and come to accept race as a healthy aspect of themselves and others. Structural racism is defined here as the policies and practices in the fabric of U.S.
Self-Esteem Stability Definition Some people possess immediate feelings of self-worth that fluctuate considerably from day to day or even within a given day. These people are said to have unstable self-esteem. Other people possess immediate feelings of self-worth that rarely, if ever, change. These people are said to have stable self-esteem. Consider Ashley who, when
This article delves into the pivotal concept of due process within the realm of school psychology. Due process, rooted in constitutional and legal principles, is explored through its historical evolution, the constitutional basis of the Fourteenth and Fifth Amendments, and the role of the Supreme Court in shaping educational due process. The practical application of
Self-Esteem Definition Self-esteem is such a commonly used term you probably already know what it is: thinking highly of yourself. You have probably heard self-esteem mentioned on talk shows, in magazine articles, and even in popular songs (the song “The Greatest Love of All” is about loving yourself, and there’s a song by the band
Sometimes the success of others is a source of good feelings. People take pride in their friends’ or their spouse’s accomplishments, and this brings people closer to their friends or spouse. Sometimes the accomplishments of friends are threatening and may even disrupt the relationships. These kinds of complex interpersonal dynamics are the focus of the
The article on gifted students provides an in-depth exploration of the multifaceted domain of gifted education in the context of school psychology. It begins by defining giftedness and tracing the historical evolution of gifted education. The first section examines the identification and characteristics of gifted students, shedding light on the challenges associated with their assessment.
Bullying is a problem that threatens the well-being of children and adolescents across the world; estimates are that up to 50% of children are perpetrators or victims. Numerous school shootings recently have been linked to bullying. Bullying has been defined in many ways, and there is some disagreement about what behaviors constitute bullying. The most
Self-Handicapping Definition Self-handicapping was first defined in 1978 by Steven Berglas and Edward Jones as “any action or choice of performance setting that enhances the opportunity to externalize (or excuse) failure and to internalize (reasonably accept credit for) success.” Self-handicapping involves putting a barrier or handicap in the way of one’s own success. If one
Self-monitoring is a personality trait that captures differences in the extent to which people control the image they present to others in social situations. High self-monitors are motivated and skilled at altering their behavior to influence the impressions others have of them. In contrast, low self-monitors tend to focus on remaining true to their inner
The creation of meaning is an essential and unique human function. Because meaning is not inherent in any action or event, it must be constructed in the mind of the participant or observer. The comprehension of past events provides the context for decision making for present and future behavior, as well as individuals’ current sense
Self-Promotion Definition Self-promotion refers to the practice of purposefully trying to present oneself as highly competent to other people. When people self-promote, their primary motivation is to be perceived by others as capable, intelligent, or talented (even at the expense of being liked). Self-promotion becomes especially useful and prominent when a person competes against others
The concept of ego strength derives from psychoanalytic theory and refers to the healthy, adaptive functioning of the ego (i.e., the capacity for effective personal functioning). Sigmund Freud conceptualized the ego as an intrapsychic substructure that serves the essential organizing and synthesizing functions that are necessary for an individual to adapt to the external world.
Self-Reference Effect Definition The self-reference effect refers to people’s tendency to better remember information when that information has been linked to the self than when it has not been linked to the self. In research on the self-reference effect, people are presented with a list of adjectives (e.g., intelligent, shy) and are asked to judge
The term empowerment was first used in the mid-17th century. Historically, it has been described as the process of giving power to, or empowering, others. In other words, empowerment may be understood as a way of assisting others to help themselves. In contemporary descriptions of empowerment, the term has become mainstream and well-known, and it
Self-Regulation Definition Self-regulation refers to the self exerting control over itself. In particular, self-regulation consists of deliberate efforts by the self to alter its own states and responses, including behavior, thoughts, impulses or appetites, emotions, and task performance. The concept of self-regulation is close to the colloquial terms self-control and self-discipline, and many social psychologists
Espiritismo is the belief that problems, conceptualized by Western psychologists as being related to mental health issues, are caused by spirits. These spirits can be forced away from the person through interventions offered by a folk healer, the espiritista. After the spirits leave, the person returns to mental health. The core beliefs of espiritismo were
Self-Reports Definition The term self-reports refers to information that is collected from an individual’s own description of the events, sensations, or beliefs under scrutiny. Self-reports may be collected with any of several different methods: for example, surveys and questionnaires, electronic diaries, and clinical interviews. Self-reports are distinguished from other methods of data collection because their
Familismo refers to a strong sense of identification with, and loyalty to, nuclear and extended family. It also includes a sense of protection of familial honor, respect, and cooperation among family members. Through these values, individuals place their family’s needs over their own personal desires and choices. Researchers indicate that familismo-related values foster the creation
Organizations use a variety of measurements to evaluate business performance, such as revenue, stock price, voluntary attrition, or employee attitude survey results. Comparing these measures to relevant benchmarks provides decision makers with a standard that can be used to interpret the organization’s standing and draw meaningful conclusions. The standard, target, or benchmark can be derived
Mental health scholars have long been interested in fatalism. In 1959 Bruce P. Dohrenwend, in an extension of the sociologist Emile Durkheim’s late-19th-century writings, posited that fatalism was a common cause of mental disorder and suicide. Fatalism was thought of as a societal response to excessive regulation and oppressive discipline, in the extreme like that
Self-Serving Bias Definition The self-serving bias refers to the tendency to take credit for successful outcomes in life, but to blame the situation or other people for failing outcomes. For example, when an individual gets a promotion at work, he or she will explain this by citing an internal cause, such as his or her
Gambling has become a major recreational activity in the United States. In the past, legalized gambling was confined to a few states, such as Nevada and New Jersey, but in the past two decades gambling opportunities have expanded. Some form of legalized gambling exists now in all but two states; 37 have lotteries, and 27
A case study is an in-depth examination of entities (individuals or organizations), processes, or activities that seeks further theoretical understanding and practical knowledge of some phenomenon. This qualitative research tool relies on a variety of techniques to achieve context-rich, detailed information about a single group or issue. Historically, case studies reflect the postmodern view of
Happiness can be defined as subjective well-being or as the actualization of human potential. Hardiness refers to an attitude comprised of control, commitment, and challenge that provides the courage and motivation to help a person assess and effectively deal with stressors. This entry will examine both of these constructs and the relationship between them. Overview
Competency modeling is a method of collecting and organizing job information and worker attributes into broad competencies. Competencies are descriptions of the characteristics and qualities that a person needs to possess to perform a job successfully. Although the practice of competency modeling is relatively new to the field of industrial and organizational psychology, the idea
Help-seeking behavior can be understood as the steps an individual, a couple, or a family takes to enter into a relationship with a counseling professional. There seems to be a gap between those who need counseling services and those who utilize them, which can be attributed to multiple factors across several dimensions. The understanding of
Self-Stereotyping Definition Self-stereotyping occurs when individuals’ beliefs about their own characteristics correspond to common beliefs about the characteristics of a group they belong to. This is generally measured in one of two ways. The first involves measuring the degree to which individuals describe themselves using characteristics that are commonly thought to describe members of their
Human weaknesses such as hopelessness and aggression have often been the focus of psychologists. This attention to weakness has resulted in information on treatments of psychological disorders such as anxiety and depression. However, with the recent emergence of the positive psychology perspective, more focus is being given to studying human strengths. The aim of positive
In organizational surveys, also often referred to as employee attitude surveys, data are gathered in two general forms, quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative approaches typically involve a statement (e.g., “Processes and procedures allow me to effectively meet my customers’ needs”) followed by a scale of response options (e.g., “strongly agree…strongly disagree”). This can be called a
Intrinsic motivation occurs when an individual engages in an activity solely because the activity is perceived and experienced as interesting and enjoyable and not because of any external incentive or inducement to do so. Historically, intrinsic motivation has been distinguished from amotivation, which refers to a lack of drive or energy to engage in an
Social Comparison Definition Social comparison involves thinking about information about one or more other people in relation to the self. People may compare themselves with other people for a variety of reasons: to evaluate themselves (e.g., How good at math am I?), to learn from others (e.g., How much did that person study to ace
Learned Helplessness Definition Learned helplessness refers to a phenomenon in which an animal or human experiences an uncontrollable, inescapable event and subsequently has difficulty obtaining desirable outcomes, even when it is easy to do so. The term is often used to explain why people may display passive, helpless behavior or feel powerless in situations that
The critical incident technique is a research process that invites respondents to identify events (incidents) they deem significant (critical) for a particular purpose, typically associated with job performance within an occupation. Researchers use data from participants’ accounts to form categories of behaviors that contribute to the success or failure of a given purpose. History of
Learned helplessness is a condition that is brought about by repeated exposure to negative stimuli. The result is that the individual learns that there are no options and no possibility for an escape from the negative stimuli. Helplessness exists when an individual’s actions have no perceived positive effect on outcomes. Learned helplessness is when an
Spotlight Effect Definition The spotlight effect is a very common psychological phenomenon that psychologists define as a person’s tendency to overestimate the extent to which others notice, judge, and remember his or her appearance and behavior. In other words, it represents a person’s conviction that the social spotlight shines more brightly on him or her
Symbolic Self-Completion Definition Symbolic self-completion refers to having or seeking social symbols of achievement regarding a goal important to one’s self-identity. R. A. Wicklund and P. M. Gollwitzer’s symbolic self-completion theory was based on the pioneering work of Kurt Lewin and his collaborators. Wicklund and Gollwitzer posited that once an individual commits to a goal
Research in industrial-organizational psychology is increasingly being conducted across cultural boundaries to test the generalizability of Western findings and to train managers to be more effective in multicultural contexts. Although cross-cultural research involves many of the same methods that are used in typical I/O research, many unique issues arise in the cross-cultural research process—from the
Value Priorities Definition Value priorities are principles that provide people with a way of knowing what they must do and what type of person they must be so that they can live the best way possible, taking into account their environment and personal attributes. Value priorities therefore provide people with a way of knowing what
Hallucinations are abnormal sensory perceptions of stimuli that occur in the absence of external stimuli. Hallucinations can be visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, or gustatory. There are numerous disorders that are associated with hallucinations, including, but not limited to, schizophrenia, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance use and withdrawal, and mood disorders. To determine appropriate treatment, the
Although elder abuse is a pervasive and growing problem, much about this topic remains unknown, and inconsistency in definitions has hampered research and practice. Both the lack of clarity of definition and the underreporting of cases have prevented a clear picture of prevalence. Notwithstanding, it is estimated that between 1 and 2 million Americans over
Effective communication between schools and families is a fundamental component of successful education. School-Home Notes, a structured tool facilitating the exchange of information between teachers and parents, play a pivotal role in promoting this essential partnership. This article delves into the theoretical foundations of School-Home Notes, highlighting the psychological theories supporting their use. It provides
The term psychosis was first used in the medical literature by Ernest von Feuchtersleben in his textbook Principles of Medical Psychology (1847). Originally, the concept was defined broadly to include any impairment of the higher mental functions. Starting in the late 1800s, psychopathologists such as Emil Kraepelin, Eugen Bleuler, and Kurt Schneider began to differentiate
The ability to spell correctly is a fundamental skill in education, as it is closely connected to literacy and effective communication. This article provides an in-depth exploration of spelling interventions and strategies in the context of school psychology. It begins with an introduction highlighting the significance of spelling skills and their role in literacy development.
Although psychopathy may be viewed as an evolutionary adaptation that serves the individual well, it typically is construed as a personality disorder, or a chronic, inflexible, and maladaptive pattern of relating to the world. Most conceptualizations of psychopathy emphasize traits of emotional detachment, including callousness, failure to form close emotional bonds, low anxiety proneness, remorselessness
Study skills are integral to the field of psychology, playing a pivotal role in academic success and cognitive development. This article explores the multifaceted world of study skills, encompassing their theoretical underpinnings, key components, and strategies for development and enhancement. The article begins by exploring the theoretical foundations rooted in cognitive psychology and metacognition, highlighting
For as long as people have been able to draw and write, they have created pornography. Greek vases and Roman brothels contain ancient, sexually explicit images. Modern technologies for delivering sexually explicit images, such as the Internet, have made pornography ubiquitous. The affordability, accessibility, and anonymity of Internet pornography have also proved a boon to
This article delves into the multifaceted concept of time on task within the realm of school psychology. Beginning with a foundational exploration of its historical context and theoretical underpinnings, the article subsequently scrutinizes various methods for measuring time on task, while scrutinizing their strengths and limitations. Further, it sheds light on evidence-based interventions and strategies
Pedophilia, a sexual preference for prepubescent children, appears early in life, is stable over time, and directs the person’s sexuality with regard to thoughts, fantasies, urges, arousal, and behavior. Pedophilia can be diagnosed on the basis of self-report, sexual history, and (among men) penile responses. These indicators of pedophilia predict sexual recidivism among male sex
This article on tutoring delves into the multifaceted realm of tutoring within the framework of school psychology. It begins by exploring the theoretical foundations that underpin tutoring, examining how psychological theories inform the design and delivery of effective tutoring programs. Subsequently, it categorizes and dissects various tutoring types and evidence-based approaches, with a focus on
Obscenity is a unique legal phenomenon for three reasons. First, the defendant does not have to know the exact content of the material at issue; he or she only has to know the general nature of the material in order to be convicted. Second, the defendant almost necessarily has to employ social scientists to conduct
This article delves into the multifaceted realm of writing interventions and strategies within the context of school psychology. It underscores the pivotal role of effective writing skills in academic success, emphasizing that writing difficulties are prevalent in educational settings. The article offers a comprehensive exploration of writing challenges, their cognitive underpinnings, and various evidence-based interventions
Mood disorders are among the most common mental disorders in the Western world. Formerly called affective disorders, these disorders involve a predominant disturbance in mood. In each case, the mood disturbance leads to other problems, which frequently include physical symptoms (such as fatigue), behavioral symptoms (such as social withdrawal), and cognitive symptoms (such as self-critical
Behavior contracting is a well-established and evidence-based intervention in school psychology, rooted in the principles of operant conditioning and behaviorism. This educational strategy involves the creation of formal agreements specifying desired behaviors, clear objectives, and the consequences of their achievement or non-achievement. This article explores the fundamental principles and components of behavior contracting, the practical
In contemporary society, a wide variety of violent content is reaching children through a variety of media including television, movies, and video games. Often, exposure to violence occurs with little adult or parental supervision. Several content analyses have examined the amount and content of violence on television. These analyses have shown that as of the
Behavior intervention is a vital component of school psychology, aimed at understanding, assessing, and modifying behaviors in educational settings. This article explores the foundations of behavior intervention, encompassing its historical evolution and theoretical underpinnings, including behaviorism, cognitive-behavioral theory, and social learning theory. It delves into the critical process of behavior assessment, emphasizing the role of
Computed across a lifespan of 75 years, there is a 1 in 200 chance that an individual in the United States will be murdered. The frequency of homicide and this startlingly high statistic warrant more concerted efforts to research the psychological underpinnings motivating homicide. The history of the study of the psychology of homicide is
The article on biofeedback delves into the multifaceted realm of biofeedback in the context of psychology and healthcare. Beginning with an exploration of its historical development and foundational principles, this comprehensive review underscores the significance of biofeedback across various modalities, ranging from electromyography to heart rate variability. It elucidates the clinical applications of biofeedback in
Elizabeth Mitchell Altmaier, a native New Yorker, was born in 1952 to a father who was an engineer and a mother who was a homemaker. Unlike her brothers, for whom working careers were simply an expected eventuality, Altmaier was encouraged by the urgings she received during her educational experiences to explore her potential as a