Corporal punishment, historically used as a disciplinary method in educational settings, remains a subject of profound psychological and ethical concern. This article examines the cognitive and emotional consequences of corporal punishment, shedding light on its impact on cognitive development, emotional well-being, and the propagation of aggressive behavior. Furthermore, it explores evidence-based alternatives in school psychology
Patricia Arredondo, born July 17, 1945, is a nationally acclaimed Latina psychologist who has achieved prominence through her work on multicultural counseling competencies. Additionally, she is an international leader in the areas of counseling, counseling psychology, and psychology and is the founder of Empowerment Workshops, Incorporated, a consulting company that focuses on issues of diversity
Positive Behavior Support (PBS) is a vital framework within the realm of school psychology, with a deep-rooted historical evolution that underscores its theoretical foundations. This comprehensive approach rests on the principles of behavioral psychology and applied behavior analysis, employing a multi-tiered system to address the behavioral needs of students. This article explores the theoretical foundations
Donald Ray Atkinson (born February 10, 1940, in Union City, Indiana) is best known for his pioneering work in the area of multicultural counseling psychology and his leadership in mentoring doctoral students of color into prominent professional positions in counseling psychology across a career spanning more than 30 years. The story of his life exemplifies
The Premack Principle, a fundamental concept in psychology, posits that higher probability behaviors can be employed to reinforce lower probability behaviors. This article delves into the origins and historical development of the Premack Principle, elucidating its core principles, and highlighting its significance in the realm of psychology. Subsequently, it explores the extensive research conducted on
Albert Bandura was born in 1925 in a small town in northern Alberta, Canada. He was the youngest of six children and the only son. The local schools he attended were very short of teachers, so the young students had to be self-directed in their learning. This may have been where the young Bandura began
This article explores the multifaceted concept of self-management within the field of psychology. It delves into the theoretical foundations of self-management, encompassing historical perspectives and essential theoretical frameworks such as self-regulation and self-determination theories. The practical applications of self-management are illuminated, highlighting strategies, techniques, and their relevance in diverse domains, including education, clinical psychology, and
Eyewitness memory plays a pivotal role in many criminal trials. A substantial body of psychological research on eyewitness memory has developed over the years. This research paper examines various types of eyewitness memory, factors that influence eyewitness memory, methods of improving eyewitness memory, and how eyewitness memory is evaluated in the course of investigations and
Aaron Temkin Beck is an American psychiatrist and the father of cognitive therapy—the most empirically supported form of psychotherapy to date. Beck was born on July 21, 1921, in Providence, Rhode Island. He attended Brown University, majoring in English and political science. Beck graduated magna cum laude in 1942. He attended Yale Medical School and
Task analysis is a fundamental concept within psychology, crucial for understanding the intricate processes involved in performing tasks and its applications in various domains. In this article, we delve into task analysis, focusing on its significance in the realm of school psychology. We explore different types and methods of task analysis, such as hierarchical, cognitive
Mental health law was first conceived as a separate field of law in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Before then, laws certainly existed on various topics later subsumed within mental health law. These included the law governing civil commitment, guardianship, the legal insanity defense, and incompetency to stand trial, among others. The common law
Martha E. Bernal was the first Latina to earn a Ph.D. in psychology. She is best known for pioneering effective ways to treat children with behavioral disorders, her model of ethnic identity for Latino/children, and providing leadership to the American Psychological Association (APA) for redressing problems with training minority students. Any one of these achievements
In the field of school psychology, Time-Out is a crucial intervention strategy rooted in the principles of behaviorism and operant conditioning. This article explores the theoretical foundations of time-out, encompassing an in-depth examination of its various types, including exclusionary and non-exclusionary methods, as well as planned ignoring. Emphasizing the practical application of time-out in school
Police psychology, the practice of psychology in police settings, has been part of American policing since the late 1960s and has traditionally been a clinical endeavor by clinical psychologists. Although many large police agencies and some medium-sized ones employ full-time clinical psychologists, most agencies contract for part-time work with clinical psychologists who often maintain separate
Rosie Phillips Bingham has always been determined as well as a person of vision. It appears that these are values she learned from her parents growing up in poverty on a plantation in Mississippi with 11 siblings. During her childhood, she and one of her brothers contracted typhoid fever and spent nearly a month in
Token Economy, a fundamental concept in the realm of behavioral psychology, has been instrumental in shaping the landscape of school psychology. This article provides an in-depth exploration of the theoretical foundations of token economy, tracing its historical development and elucidating the core principles of tokens, backup reinforcers, and contingencies. It subsequently delves into the practical
Violence risk assessment is a decision-making task that transpires in numerous legal and clinical settings in which the possibility of a person’s future violent behavior is of concern. Common contexts in which violence risk assessment occurs include involuntary civil commitment, release from prison or forensic hospital, sentencing, transfer of youths to adult court, and sexually violent
Jesus Manuel (Manny) Casas was born in the small town of Avalos, Chihuahua, Mexico. His rich racial/ethnic heritage includes roots in Spain and indigenous Mexico. His paternal great-grandmother was Apache, having been saved by Mexican wagon masters from U.S. cavalry raids on her village and subsequently taken to Mexico where she was raised by his
This article delves into the pivotal role of verbal praise in the field of school psychology. Grounded in foundational psychological theories, it explores the psychological mechanisms by which verbal praise influences student behavior and motivation. The practical applications of verbal praise in educational settings are illuminated, with an emphasis on its impact on student performance
Forensic assessment is a part of the broader category of psychological assessment. The purpose of forensic assessment is distinct from that of traditional therapeutic assessment, and as such forensic evaluators have different training and practice guidelines. The settings in which forensic evaluations occur are vast, including law enforcement, correctional, and civil and criminal court settings.
Kenneth Bancroft Clark was one of the most influential psychologists and social activists of his generation. Born in the Panama Canal Zone in 1914, Clark moved with his family to Harlem, New York, when he was 4 years old. After graduating from Washington High School in New York City, he enrolled in Howard University, a
Early intervention in school psychology is a pivotal strategy designed to address developmental and educational challenges in children. This article explores the concept of early intervention, its historical evolution, and the theoretical foundations underlying its practice. It delves into the indispensable role of early intervention within the realm of school psychology, emphasizing its objectives, goals
Altruism Definition Altruism refers to a motive for helping behavior that is primarily intended to relieve another person’s distress, with little or no regard for the helper’s self-interest. Altruistic help is voluntary, deliberate, and motivated by concern for another person’s welfare. When help is given for altruistic reasons, the helper does not expect repayment, reciprocity
Mamie Phipps Clark, one of the first Black women to earn a Ph.D. in psychology, was the cofounder and director of the innovative Northside Center for Child Development in New York City. Founded in 1946, Northside is a multidisciplinary, multiracial service for children, adolescents, and parents with psychological and educational needs in the Harlem community.
This article on mathematics curriculum and instruction delves into the intricacies of developing, implementing, and enhancing mathematics education in the modern educational landscape. It explores the historical evolution of math curricula, the principles that guide their design, and the involvement of various stakeholders. The implementation section investigates the dynamic teaching approaches, the role of assessments
Altruistic Punishment Definition An act is altruistic if it is costly for the acting individual and beneficial for someone else. Thus, punishment is altruistic if it is costly for the punisher and if the punished person’s behavior changes such that others benefit. This definition does not require an altruistic motivation. Think of queuing as an
Madonna G. Constantine is an African American female counseling psychologist who has been described by many as an inspired researcher, prolific author, respected mentor, and leader in the exploration of multicultural and social justice issues in psychology. Her extensive record of research has blazed new trails in the exploration of multicultural counseling competence and the
Cognitive-Behavioral Modification (CBM) in school psychology stands as an essential and dynamic approach for addressing cognitive and behavioral challenges in educational settings. This article delves into the foundations, applications, and techniques of CBM in the context of school psychology. It begins by elucidating the theoretical underpinnings of CBM, tracing its evolution from psychological theories, and
Attraction Definition Attraction, to a social psychologist, is any force that draws people together. Social psychologists have traditionally used the term attraction to refer to the affinity that draws together friends and romantic partners. However, many current researchers believe there are important qualitative differences among the forces that draw people into different types of relationships.
Paul T. Costa, Jr., and Robert R. (Jeff) McCrae are an extraordinarily productive research team that has worked together since they first met in Boston in 1975. Their more than 250 publications on personality traits and the Five Factor model have had a profound effect on personality assessment, theory, and research. Costa was born in
Crisis intervention, a fundamental concept in the field of psychology, plays a crucial role in addressing psychological emergencies. This article begins by defining crisis intervention and underlining its significance. It then delves into the intricate nature of crises, exploring their various types and contributing factors, along with the psychological responses they evoke. Models of crisis
Bystander Effect Definition Individuals who see or hear an emergency (but are otherwise uninvolved) are called bystanders. The bystander effect describes the phenomenon in which such individuals are less likely to seek help or give assistance when others are present. This does not mean that bystanders are apathetic to the plight of others, for bystanders
Christine A. Courtois is best known for her pioneering work in understanding, diagnosing, and treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in survivors of sexual abuse, particularly incest. Beginning with her graduate studies and continuing throughout her career, she has been groundbreaking in her commitment to the well-being of the patients she serves and to the expansion
This article explores the foundational concepts, implementation, and challenges of evidence-based interventions within the realm of school psychology. It delves into the historical development of evidence-based practices, emphasizing the critical importance of empirical support and ethical considerations. The discussion covers the essential steps involved in implementing evidence-based interventions, from assessment and diagnosis to practitioner training
Compassion Definition Compassion is the emotion one experiences when feeling concern for another’s suffering and desiring to enhance that individual’s welfare. It is different from empathy, which refers to the mirroring or understanding of another’s response; from pity, which refers to feelings of concern for someone weaker than the self; and from agape, which refers
John O. Crites completed the A.B. degree in history from Princeton University in 1950 (magna cum laude) and the Ph.D. degree in Counseling Psychology from Columbia University in 1957. He made a number of significant professional contributions at the University of Iowa where he started the Counseling Psychology Program in 1958. He was the Head
Facilitated Communication (FC) has been a subject of both fervent advocacy and intense scrutiny in the realm of school psychology. This article provides a comprehensive examination of FC, offering insights into its historical development, controversies, and contemporary practices. The article explores the concept’s definition, the roles of facilitators and communicators, and the ethical, legal, and
The theme of cooperation has been a prominent domain of theory and research within a variety of disciplines, including philosophy, political science, economics, sociology, biology, and psychology. The broad interest in cooperation is not surprising. This theme is intimately linked to the basic views and assumptions regarding human nature and relevant to the functioning of
William E. Cross, Jr., is an African American social psychologist who is best known for his Nigrescence model of Black racial identity. The power of Cross’s original Nigrescence model, which was first articulated in 1971, is evident by its adoption in the theorizing about other cultural identities, including minority, racial, ethnic, feminist, womanist, and gay/lesbian
Family counseling, a vital domain within the field of psychology, encompasses an array of theoretical frameworks, therapeutic techniques, and ethical considerations. This article delves into the multifaceted landscape of family counseling, commencing with an exploration of its theoretical foundations, encompassing systemic and narrative approaches. It subsequently delves into the practical realm of family counseling, detailing
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis Definition The empathy-altruism hypothesis states that feelings of empathy for another person produce an altruistic motivation to increase that person’s welfare. In the empathy-altruism hypothesis, the term empathy refers to feelings of compassion, sympathy, tenderness, and the like. Altruism refers to a motivational state in which the goal is to increase another person’s
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi has spent his career researching creativity, happiness, subjective well-being, and fun. He is currently the C. S. and D. J. Davidson Professor of Psychology and Management at Claremont Graduate University in California. He received his Ph.D. at the University of Chicago in 1965. Csikszentmihalyi (pronounced “chick-SENT-me high”) was born in Hungary in wartime
Hypnosis, a phenomenon with a rich historical backdrop, is a complex and intriguing subject within the realm of psychology. This article delves into the multifaceted nature of hypnosis, exploring its definition and historical development while examining the various theories and neuroscience behind it. Furthermore, it sheds light on the clinical applications and ethical considerations associated
Negative-State Relief Model Definition The negative-state relief (NSR) model is a theory that attempts to describe how one situational factor— sadness—relates to the willingness to help others. Specifically, this theory predicts that at least under certain circumstances, a temporary feeling of sadness is likely to result in an increased willingness to help others. For example
Rene Villanueva Dawis continues to be a major contributor to counseling psychology and to the psychology of individual differences. Born in the Philippines in 1928 into the family of a professor of agronomy, Dawis received his B.A. (cum laude) from the University of the Philippines in 1951 and spent 2 years as an instructor in
This article on mentoring in school psychology offers a comprehensive examination of mentoring within the field of school psychology. It begins by defining mentoring and tracing its historical roots in education. The article delves into the theoretical foundations of mentoring, elucidating various models and frameworks while incorporating psychological theories that underpin mentoring relationships. Part 2
Altruism refers to behaviors that are performed for the sake of benefiting others at a cost to oneself. Reciprocal altruism is when altruistic behaviors are performed because they increase the likelihood of repayment in the future. For quite some time the presence of altruistic behaviors in animals and humans was a genuine puzzle for the
Edward Deci and Richard Ryan are professors in the Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology at the University of Rochester. Their extremely productive 30-year collaboration has led to the development and continuing evolution of self-determination theory (SDT). Deci received his Ph.D. from Carnegie Mellon University in 1970, and Ryan received his Ph.D. from
Psychotherapy, a cornerstone of contemporary psychology, encompasses a diverse array of approaches and techniques aimed at promoting mental health and well-being. This article provides an in-depth exploration of psychotherapy, from its historical origins rooted in the pioneering work of figures like Sigmund Freud to its evolution into diverse schools of thought, such as psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral
Search for Meaning in Life Definition The search for meaning in life refers to the idea that individuals are strongly motivated to find meaning in their lives, that is, to be able to understand the nature of their personal existence, and feel it is significant and purposeful. Life feels meaningful to people when they can
Ursula Delworth was a pioneer in many ways in counseling and counseling psychology. In fact, she was one of the early counseling psychologists who easily made her home in both counseling and psychology, and her contributions were outstanding in both professional domains. Delworth was the first of two daughters born to a U.S. naval officer
Psychotropic medications, a pivotal component of modern psychological treatment, have significantly impacted the landscape of mental health care. This article explores the diverse array of psychotropic medications, encompassing antidepressants, antipsychotics, anxiolytics, and sedative-hypnotics. It delves into the mechanisms of action, commonly prescribed drugs, indications, effectiveness, as well as the associated risks and patient considerations for
Volunteerism Definition Volunteerism is voluntary, deliberate service to others over time and without compensation. A key element of volunteer behavior is that the person freely chooses to help and has no expectation of pay or other compensation. Mandatory public service required by courts or schools would not meet the definition of volunteerism. The volunteer behavior
In her autobiographical writings and speeches, Louise Douce described herself as coming of age personally and professionally amidst the “wave of feminism” in academia in the 1970s and early 1980s. She identified feminist values as a core part of her identity and has consistently embodied those values as a clinician, administrator, educator, mentor, scholar, and
Student Improvement Teams (SITs) are instrumental entities within the realm of school psychology, meticulously designed to enhance the educational experience of students. This article illuminates the formation and structure of SITs, delves into their multifaceted functions and responsibilities, and assesses their effectiveness in promoting student development and academic success. Drawing upon empirical evidence and case
Decision Model of Helping Definition The decision model of helping, introduced in The Unresponsive Bystander by Bibb Latane and John Darley, outlines a process of five steps that will determine whether a bystander will act or not in a helping situation. This model is also intended to offer a counterargument to the proposition that people
Albert Ellis, the developer of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), contributed greatly to the practice of psychotherapy through his clinical practice, involvement with numerous professional organizations, publications of books and articles, and teaching. Ellis was born in Pittsburgh and was raised in New York City. He had a difficult childhood and, due to the family
Social skills are fundamental to human interaction and development. This article explores the multifaceted landscape of social skills, focusing on their development in children and adolescents, the various types of social skills, and the assessment and intervention methods used by school psychologists. Understanding social skills’ critical role in communication, emotional regulation, and conflict resolution is
Collective Self Definition The collective self consists of those aspects of the self that are based on memberships in social groups or categories. It refers to a perception of self as an interchangeable exemplar of some social category rather than a perception of self as a unique person. The collective self is based on impersonal
Bruce Fretz contributed to the field of counseling psychology in a varied and significant fashion. He left lasting impressions on students within the field, facilitated the development of new faculty, and contributed to the growing profession, all from his position as director of the counseling psychology doctoral program at the University of Maryland. Over 20
Attention is a fundamental cognitive process central to human perception, cognition, and behavior. This article delves into the multifaceted concept of attention in psychology. The introduction provides a foundational understanding of attention’s historical evolution and its pivotal role in psychological research. The subsequent sections explore the intricacies of attention, covering its various components, theoretical models
Contingencies of Self-Worth Definition The work of theorists like William James, Charles Cooley, and G. H. Mead suggests that self-esteem, because it is a judgment about the self, must be based on some sort of criteria. These criteria can be called contingencies of self-worth. William James suggested that everyone’s self-esteem is a result of how
Sigmund Freud wanted to show the importance of a force outside of everyday experiencing that we cannot know directly which governs our actions—the unconscious part of the mind. According to Freud, the unconscious is the source of wishes arising in childhood that are socially reprehensible and blocked from consciousness. We can only be certain of
This article on cognitive dissonance delves into the foundational principles, behavioral implications, and applications of this pivotal concept in the field of psychology. It begins by explicating Leon Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance, elucidating the discomfort arising from cognitive inconsistencies and the process of tension reduction. Subsequently, the article elucidates the profound influence of cognitive
Ego Shock Definition Ego shock refers to feeling mentally paralyzed or frozen in response to severe self-esteem threats. Individuals in a state of ego shock have trouble thinking; they feel distant from themselves; the world seems distant or strange; they feel emotionally numb. The experience of ego shock is temporary, usually only lasting for seconds
Myrna (Micki) L. Friedlander is best characterized as a brilliant, warm, and delightful individual whose greatest contributions to the profession have brought family therapy into mainstream counseling psychology. Beginning with the first family therapy articles to ever be published in Journal of Counseling Psychology in 1984 and 1985, and culminating in 2006 with her book
Generalization, a fundamental concept in psychology, plays a pivotal role in understanding how individuals learn, adapt, and respond to stimuli. This article delves into the multifaceted aspects of generalization, categorizing it into stimulus and response types, while exploring the critical factors that influence generalization, including discrimination, contextual cues, and individual differences. It also examines the
Egocentric Bias Definition Most people know more about themselves than they know about others. This is true in part because people tend to pay more attention to themselves than to others and in part because people have privileged access to information about themselves (e.g., private thoughts, emotions) that is unavailable to others. Because it is
Charles J. Gelso, who was born on November 27, 1941, in Pittston, Pennsylvania, has been a professor of counseling psychology at the University of Maryland for most of his career. He is the author of more than 110 articles in professional counseling journals, as well as 10 book chapters and 4 books. His scholarship addresses
Learned helplessness, a seminal concept in the field of psychology, emerged from Martin Seligman’s pioneering research in the mid-20th century. This phenomenon represents a state of psychological disempowerment resulting from a perceived lack of control over aversive events. This article offers an exploration of learned helplessness, spanning its historical development, underlying causes, and mechanisms, as
The United States entered World War I late in the conflict and faced the problem of turning large numbers of often poorly educated draftees into an effective army in a short period of time. The American Psychological Association volunteered its services to the war effort, and a committee, headed by Robert Yerkes and including psychologists
Lewis R. Goldberg is an internationally acclaimed psychologist best known for his programmatic studies testing the lexical hypothesis that any culturally important personality characteristic will be represented in the language of that culture. Goldberg was born in Chicago on January 28, 1932. As an undergraduate at Harvard (1949-1953), he decided against following his father into
Learning is a fundamental process that shapes human development and behavior. This article provides an overview of learning, spanning from historical perspectives to contemporary theories. It delves into the behaviorist, cognitive, constructivist, and humanistic theories of learning, highlighting their contributions to understanding how individuals acquire knowledge and skills. Furthermore, it explores the various types of
The Hawthorne Studies and the Hawthorne Effect are threads through management schools and associated research from before the Great Depression to the present. They can be viewed from at least four vantage points. The Hawthorne Studies themselves were a series of collaborative investigations at the Hawthorne Works of Western Electric. The researchers began with a
Leo Goldman gave critical attention to the use of psychological tests in counseling. As editor of the Personnel and Guidance Journal, he emphasized the importance of educating counselors in the use of psychological tests. He was skeptical of the value of standardized tests and concerned with the potential misuse of test information in the public
Learning styles are a critical aspect of educational psychology, influencing how individuals acquire and process information. This article explores the concept of learning styles, their historical development, and various models and theories that seek to describe them, including Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles, and the VARK model. It delves into the
This article is about the history of work and organizational (W/O) psychology, as it is called in Europe; it is also known as industrial-organizational psychology ( (I-OPsychology) in the United States. To correctly interpret this historical account of W/O psychology in Europe, it should be taken into account that our discipline had and has different
Janet E. Helms, born in Kansas City, Missouri, is a scholar and educator best known for her work on the theory and measurement of racial identity development and her active involvement in psychological organizations. Over a period of approximately 25 years, Helms’s theory of racial identity development has emerged as a set of highly interrelated
Mastery Learning, a pedagogical approach rooted in personalized, self-paced education, has undergone substantial development and refinement since its inception. This article provides an overview of Mastery Learning, delving into its historical origins, the fundamental principles that underpin its implementation, and the diverse benefits it offers in various educational settings. It also explores the challenges and
The confluence of dynamic external (socioeconomic, business, military, legal, technology) and internal forces (individuals, theories, research, applications) transformed the science and practice of industrial-organizational psychology from the foresights of a few individuals into a legitimate scientific and applied discipline. Throughout the evolution, an underlying theme persisted: The study and use of psychology for improving the
Puncky Paul Heppner, born on February 24, 1951, in Bismarck, North Dakota, is a counseling psychologist at the University of Missouri. Early in his career Heppner significantly advanced psychologists’ understanding of the role of social influence in the counseling process. Despite the importance of this work, he is most widely known for his significant theoretical
This article explores the concept of memory within the context of school psychology. Memory, a fundamental cognitive process, plays a pivotal role in education, impacting learning, academic performance, and the identification and intervention of memory-related disorders. The article delineates the core memory processes—sensory, short-term, and long-term memory—while elucidating their characteristics and mechanisms. It delves into
This entry presents the history of industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology in four countries: Israel, India, Singapore, and Australia. It points out some similarities in the evolution of the profession across diverse cultures. Industrial-Organizational Psychology in Israel Early 20th Century The presence of psychology in Israel is traced back to 1930, when a group of German-Jewish psychoanalysts
Clara E. Hill, born on September 13, 1948, in Shivers, Mississippi, has contributed profoundly to counseling psychology through her innovations in counseling process and outcome research, development of models for teaching helping skills and for working with dreams, and creation of a qualitative research methodology. She has also received several of counseling psychology’s highest honors.
Motivation, a central construct in psychology, plays a pivotal role in the educational realm, especially within the purview of school psychology. This article explores the nature of motivation, categorizing it into intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation, while delving into prominent motivational theories such as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Self-Determination Theory, and Expectancy-Value Theory. Understanding the various
Executive Function of Self Definition The executive function of self refers to the internal capacity to choose and to direct one’s own behavior. Although behavior undoubtedly is shaped by forces outside of one’s control, including genetics, cultural norms, and happenstance, some behavior is consciously intended and therefore shaped in part by the person. The executive
John Holland is primarily identified as a counseling psychologist whose main theoretical and practical contributions have been focused in the field of career choice and adjustment. He has been concerned with the choice and processes involved in selecting, adapting to, and changing occupations. His theory and practical contributions apply most directly to people throughout their
Problem solving, a fundamental cognitive process deeply rooted in psychology, plays a pivotal role in various aspects of human existence, especially within educational contexts. This article delves into the nature of problem solving, exploring its theoretical underpinnings, the cognitive and psychological processes that underlie it, and the application of problem-solving skills within educational settings and
Viewing the Hawthorne Studies as the linchpin that connected scientific management to new thinking and practice, the human relations movement is the result. This entry approaches the human relations movement from three vantage points: Genesis and growth of the movement Key concepts and practices of the human relations movement Role of the movement in shaping
Both of Allen Ivey’s parents were born in near poverty during a time when there was no social safety net. Ivey’s father’s parents had emigrated from Kernow (also known as Cornwall), Great Britain, to the United States and Canada at the turn of the century. Ivey’s grandfather died when his father was 9, leaving his
This article on self-concept and efficacy delves into the multifaceted realm of self-concept and self-efficacy, two pivotal constructs in psychology. Within this discourse, we scrutinize the underpinnings of self-concept, encompassing its historical evolution, integral components, and consequential role in psychological development. In parallel, we unravel the concept of self-efficacy, anchored in Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Exemplification Definition Exemplification is defined as a strategic self-presentational strategy whereby an individual attempts to project an image of integrity and moral worthiness. A person can accomplish exemplification by presenting him- or herself as honest, disciplined, self-sacrificing, generous, or principled. When successful, a person who exemplifies integrity and moral worthiness may be able to influence
Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss-German psychoanalyst who, with Sigmund Freud, was instrumental in ushering depth psychology (theories of the unconscious) into the 20th century. Jung was educated at the University of Zurich and as a young man he developed the concept of the autonomous, unconscious complex and the technique of free association, well before
Self-fulfilling prophecy is a powerful psychological phenomena with profound implications in various domains. This article explores the concept’s historical roots, theoretical foundations in social and cognitive psychology, and its real-world applications. Delving into the mechanisms and processes that drive self-fulfilling prophecies, the article dissects cognitive and behavioral elements, the role of expectations and biases, and
Project A was the name applied by the U.S. Army to its contribution to the Joint-Service Job Performance Measurement/Enlistment Standards (JPM) Project sponsored by the Department of Defense (DoD) in 1982. Lasting until 1989, Project A—which now also comprises the follow-on Career Force project (examining performance during soldiers’ second tours of duty and spanning 1990-1994)—is
Karen Strohm Kitchener is recognized internationally for her contributions to the fields of counseling psychology and higher education. Among counseling psychologists, she is best known for her work in ethics. In higher education, Kitchener is best known for her research on reflective judgment, the process by which people become increasingly able to draw conclusions about
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) stands as a landmark piece of legislation that has reshaped the landscape of disability rights in the United States. This article provides an examination of the ADA, delving into its historical context, legislative development, key provisions, and real-world impact. It also explores the critiques, controversies, and ongoing challenges faced
Identity Crisis Definition Erik H. Erikson coined the term identity crisis to describe the uncertainty, and even anxiety, that adolescents may feel as they recognize that they are no longer children and become puzzled and confused about their present and future roles in life. Context and Importance of Identity Crisis You may recall a time
John D. Krumboltz, Ph.D., has demonstrated throughout his life and work that counselors can help clients with career, academic, and personal problems to explore and expand their learning experiences; challenge unhelpful beliefs; embrace unanticipated opportunities; and take positive actions to create more satisfying lives for themselves. He received from the American Psychological Association the Award
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) stands as a seminal legislative milestone, ushering in a new era of inclusive education for individuals with disabilities in the United States. This article delves into the historical development of IDEA, tracing its origins, milestones, and amendments. It expounds upon the key provisions that underpin this legislation, emphasizing
Scientific management is the umbrella term for practice and research that advocates making organizations more efficient by systematically working to improve the efficiency of workers. The work of individuals associated with this movement, such as Frederick Winslow Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, and Henry Gantt, lives on in the current management approaches of statistical process
Frederic (Fritz) Kuder is best known as the author of the Kuder Preference Records, four distinctly different forms of an interest inventory that since their introduction in 1938 have been taken by millions of people worldwide. As a transfer student at the University of Arizona, Kuder came late to a required orientation meeting for new
The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act – B (IDEA-B) plays a pivotal role in shaping the landscape of inclusive education for children with disabilities. This comprehensive overview explores the historical evolution of IDEA-B, from its legislative origins to its contemporary significance. It delves into the key provisions of IDEA-B, elucidating concepts such as Free and
According to the scientist-practitioner model, psychologists are both practitioners who apply knowledge and scientists who base their activities on sound research in the profession. Some individuals may function more fully as scientists, conducting research and publishing their findings, whereas others may devote their lives to its application, but each has a keen respect for the
Teresa Davis LaFromboise was born in a small southern Indiana town. She is of American Indian (Miami Nation) and European descent and is best known for her work in American Indian adolescent suicide prevention. LaFromboise began her career as a middle school art and language arts teacher with the Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa and
This article delves into the multifaceted landscape of Section 504 in the realm of school psychology. It commences with an exploration of the legal framework’s origins, evolution, and pivotal court cases that catalyzed its inception. Subsequently, the article scrutinizes the practical dimensions of Section 504, elucidating its implementation in educational institutions, the crucial role played
Illusion of Control Definition The illusion of control (also known as illusory control) refers to the tendency for people to exaggerate their ability to produce a desired outcome. Even when it comes to controlling random events, people believe they have control. Factors That Influence Illusory Control Traditionally, people assumed accurate self-knowledge was crucial for survival
Frederick T. L. Leong is a first-generation Asian American of Chinese descent, who was born and educated in Malaysia. He came to the United States in 1975 on an international student scholarship to study for a B.A. in psychology at Bates College in Lewiston, Maine. He graduated cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa in 1979
Asthma, a chronic respiratory condition characterized by airway inflammation and bronchoconstriction, holds substantial global significance due to its prevalence and impact on individuals’ health. This article delves into different aspects of asthma, beginning with an exploration of its etiology and risk factors, ranging from genetic predispositions to environmental triggers. It further elucidates the intricate pathophysiology
Impression Management Definition Impression management refers to the activity of controlling information to steer others’ opinions in the service of personal or social goals. Although people can manage impressions of almost anything (e.g., a clothing brand, a political position), people most commonly manage the impressions others form of themselves, a subtype of impression management that
Lloyd Henry Lofquist was more than the prototypical University of Minnesota-trained psychologist—he devoted the greater part of his life to the university and to the field of counseling psychology. Born in Minneapolis in 1917 into a tradesman’s family, Lofquist spent his entire life in the Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota, area, except for the period 1942-1946 when
This article on cancer provides an exploration of this disease, exploring into its biological foundations, causes and risk factors, diagnostic methods, treatment modalities, and prevention strategies. With a focus on scientific rigor and evidence-based analysis, the article elucidates the intricate nature of cancer, emphasizing the importance of early detection and the latest advancements in treatment.
Unions—or more specifically, labor unions or trade unions— are found throughout the world and can be broadly defined as associations of workers, the purpose of which is to represent the working interests of their members with respect to wages, hours, grievance procedures, and working conditions, through collective bargaining with the employer. Collective bargaining is a
Anthony J. Marsella, Emeritus Professor of Psychology, University of Hawai’i, Honolulu, is a pioneer in the study of cultural determinants of psychopathology and therapies. He has also been a major contributor to cross-cultural psychology and global and international psychology. Many of his writings are considered essential reading for students and scholars in psychology, psychiatry, and
Cerebral Palsy (CP) is a complex neurological condition with profound implications for individuals and society. This article explores CP, encompassing its definition, classification, etiology, and risk factors. It delves into the psychological impact on individuals with CP, particularly within an educational context, highlighting the essential role of school psychology. The article elucidates the array of
Independent Self-Construals Definition Self-construal refers to the way in which a person thinks about and defines the self. Importantly, self-construal is not only a way of viewing oneself but also a way of understanding one’s relationship to the larger social world. When people are construing or thinking about themselves in an independent way, they are
Eating disorders, a complex category of mental health conditions, have gained significant attention within the field of psychology due to their profound impact on individuals’ physical and psychological well-being. This article provides an exploration of eating disorders, divided into three key sections. Part I offers insight into the nature of eating disorders, including their definition
Self-construal refers to the way in which a person thinks about and defines the self. Importantly, self-construal is not only a way of viewing oneself but also a way of understanding one’s relationship to the larger social world. When people are construing or thinking about themselves in an interdependent way, they are likely to think
Introspection Definition The term introspection is generally used by psychologists to refer to people’s observation and contemplation of their own thoughts, feelings, and sensations. In early psychology, trained introspection was viewed as a useful tool for acquiring data about the nature of such cognitions, though the methodology fell into disfavor and was largely abandoned during
Looking-Glass Self Definition The looking-glass self is the process by which people evaluate themselves based on how others see them. According to this theory, people first imagine how they appear to others. Second, they imagine how others judge them based on that appearance. Third, people have an emotional reaction to that imagined judgment, such as
Misattribution of Arousal Definition Misattribution of arousal refers to the idea that physiological arousal can be perceived to stem from a source that is not actually the cause of the arousal, which may have implications for the emotions one experiences. For example, if a professor was unknowingly served a caffeinated latte at her coffee shop
Moral Development Definition Moral development refers to age-related changes in the thoughts and emotions that guide individuals’ ideas of right and wrong and how they and others should act. in addressing this broad concept, theorists and researchers have focused on the moral cognitions, feelings, and behaviors that tend to evolve from early childhood to adulthood.
Mortality Salience Definition Mortality salience refers to a psychological state in which a person is consciously thinking about his or her own death. Mortality Salience Background Jeff Greenberg, Tom Pyszczynski, and Sheldon Solomon coined the term in 1986 to refer to a way to assess terror management theory. The theory posits that the fear of
Name Letter Effect Definition The name letter effect refers to people’s tendency to favor the letters that are included in their names more than letters that are not in their names. In plain terms, people like the letters in their names better than they like the rest of the alphabet. Because the link between name
Measurement is the process of quantifying the characteristics of a person or object. Theories of measurement help to explain measurement results (i.e., scores), thereby providing a rationale for how they are interpreted and treated mathematically and statistically. Classical test theory (CTT) is a measurement theory used primarily in psychology, education, and related fields. It was
Equity theory is a conceptualization that focuses on the causes and consequences of people’s perceptions of equity and inequity in their relationships with others. First proposed by J. Stacy Adams in 1963 and fully developed in a chapter published 2 years later, equity theory draws on earlier social psychological concepts inspired by Fritz Heider’s balance
A construct, also known as a hypothetical construct or a psychological construct, is a scientific tool used to facilitate understanding of human behavior. All sciences are built on systems of constructs and their interrelations. The natural sciences use constructs such as gravity, temperature, phylogenetic dominance, tectonic pressure, and global warming. Likewise, the behavioral sciences use
A core interest of personnel psychology is whether some intervention in selection, training, or motivation relates to some criterion. A criterion is an evaluative standard that is used as a yardstick for measuring employees’ success or failure on the job. In many instances, the criterion of interest will be job performance, but a criterion could
Measurement provides a means for quantifying important phenomena of interest. In many measurement contexts, researchers are interested solely in efficiently describing the data. Descriptive statistics are the indexes through which such data summarization may be accomplished. Unlike contexts in which the researcher is interested in drawing generalizations from data, descriptive statistics are not used to
Differential item functioning (DIF) is the preferred psychometric term for what is otherwise known as item bias. An item displays DIF when test takers possessing the same amount of an ability or trait, but belonging to different subgroups, do not share the same likelihood of correctly answering the item. Thus, differentially functioning items elicit different
The controversy surrounding the juvenile death penalty is not new; the courts have struggled with the issue for decades. Meanwhile, psychologists have presented research results on both the capabilities of juveniles and the public’s support for the juvenile death penalty. Although the Supreme Court has not consistently relied on psychological findings, those findings are relevant
Research has shown that jurors in many types of cases frequently fail to understand the jury instructions they receive. However, this failure to understand has special implications in capital, or death penalty, cases. As in other cases, juror comprehension of instructions in death penalty cases is very low, and the difficulty of some of the
Death qualification is a unique form of jury selection that is used only in capital cases. Potential jurors are screened beforehand on the basis of their attitudes toward death penalty, and persons holding “disqualifying” attitudes or beliefs about capital punishment are dismissed from further participation. In the late 1960s, the U.S. Supreme Court established the
The Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibits cruel and unusual punishment, which, according to the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Ford v. Wainwright (1986), includes the execution of the insane. Thus, it is unconstitutional to execute condemned inmates who become incompetent while on death row while they remain in an incompetent state. Statutes set
To date, very few instruments have been developed for the purpose of assisting evaluators in the assessment of competency for execution. One of the first—the Checklist for Competency for Execution Evaluations— is described in this research paper. The checklist consists of four sections that describe important and relevant psycholegal criteria to be considered in this
Capital mitigation consists of evidence that is presented in a death penalty trial to obtain a sentence other than death. In the bifurcated trial process that characterizes modern capital cases (in which a second penalty or sentencing phase occurs only if the defendant has been convicted of a crime for which the death penalty may
The question of how individuals with severe mental disabilities should be sentenced when they are convicted of capital (death penalty) crimes is a vexing one in U.S. society. On one hand, the death penalty is an established part of the criminal justice system in the United States, which exists in part as a reflection of
If a defendant is found guilty of a capital crime, the triers of fact are called on to weigh the significance of the aggravating and mitigating factors of the case and to use such judgments to decide whether the defendant will receive the death penalty or a life sentence. During the sentencing phase, the prosecution
Aggravating factors are elements of the crime or the defendant’s prior criminal record that not only make the defendant eligible for the death penalty but also serve to make the defendant more likely to receive the death penalty. Mitigating factors are elements of the crime or the defendant’s character and background that could make the
People ordinarily refrain from behaving in ways that violate their core moral standards because such conduct will bring self-censure. In some institutional role functions, however, such as military combat and state executions, the taking of human life presents a grave moral predicament. Intentional infliction of death and destruction can, therefore, exact a heavy emotional toll
The validity indicator profile (VIP) is a measure of response validity that is intended to be administered concurrently within a battery of cognitive tests in a forensic assessment. The VIP has two subtests (verbal and nonverbal), containing 178 items in all. Curve analysis of test responses classifies performance as valid or invalid. Invalid performances are
The issue of malingering is becoming increasingly important in the field of forensic psychology, particularly in cases involving traumatic brain injury, where alleged memory impairment is often used to seek personal compensation or as a defense against prosecution for various types of crimes. The Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) was developed by the author to
The Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) is a fully structured interview that is designed to assess feigned mental disorders and related response styles. Each of its eight primary scales was constructed to evaluate well-established detection strategies for differentiating between malingered and genuine psychopathology. These primary scales consist of Rare Symptoms (RS), Symptom Combinations (SC)
The Rogers Criminal Responsibility Assessment Scales (R-CRAS) is a structured decision model for quantifying relevant psychological variables that are salient for the retrospective evaluation of insanity. The R-CRAS was validated to address specifically the American Law Institute (ALI) insanity standard that requires an assessment of a defendant’s cognitive and volitional impairment at the time of
The study of public opinion about the courts is closely tied to concerns that date back to the Constitutional Convention. Then, and subsequently, it has been noted that while the executive branch has the power of the sword and the legislative branch the power of the purse, for compliance with its orders, the judiciary uniquely
The Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) is an 80-item self-report inventory designed to measure eight thinking styles presumed to reinforce, support, and maintain a criminal lifestyle. The eight thinking styles assessed by the PICTS are Mollification, Cutoff, Entitlement, Power Orientation, Superoptimism, Sentimentality, Cognitive Indolence, and Discontinuity. The PICTS also contains two validity scales—Confusion
The relationship between race and the decision making of juries is complex and controversial. Media and public discussions of the topic often focus on anecdotal evidence in the form of recent high-profile cases in the United States. Researchers, on the other hand, have begun to generate a wide-ranging empirical literature regarding the influence of a
A strength of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) is its multiple indicators regarding an examinee’s approach to the test. Ideally, examinees answer all questions, respond consistently, and do not distort test findings by overreporting or underreporting experienced psychopathology. However, some individuals may approach the test in a manner that deviates from this optimal scenario
Scientific jury selection (SJS) is the use of a survey to decide which jurors to favor in a trial. Prior to the 1970s, jury selection was done by attorneys based on their hunches. The new quantitative method was welcomed enthusiastically by trial attorneys. Social scientists were more reserved. SJS led to the employment of social
The original Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and its successor have been recognized as the most widely used and researched objective clinical personality inventories. Using 567 true-false items, the MMPI-2 assesses a diverse range of personality characteristics; symptoms of psychopathology; and patterns of behavior, attitudes, and concerns. First published in 1942 and revised in 1989
Research examining juror decisions in sexual harassment has generally found a relationship between juror gender and liability decisions, in that women are more likely than men to consider sociosexual behavior sexual harassment. This relationship is mediated by several variables, including attitudes of hostile sexism, juror self-referencing, juror ratings of the credibility of the plaintiff, and
The Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III (MCMI-III) is a 175-item self-report inventory designed to assess personality characteristic and psychopathology. It has 4 validity scales, 11 clinical personality pattern scales, and 3 severe clinical syndrome scales. Although not originally validated in forensic populations, and in spite of limited research with forensic subjects, it is increasingly being used
Statistical information is increasingly likely to be presented in court. It may appear in civil cases (e.g., percentages of men and women employees in a gender discrimination case) or criminal cases (e.g., the defendant’s blood type matches that of a sample found at the crime scene and that blood type is found in only 20%
The Miller Forensic Assessment of Symptoms Test (M-FAST) is a screening measure for the detection of feigned, or malingered, mental illness. The M-FAST may be used in psychological evaluations of an adult who might be attempting to fake a psychiatric disorder. Because of the reported prevalence of malingering and difficulty of accurate detection through clinical
In the context of the courtroom, “stealing thunder” refers to revealing damaging information first so as to diffuse its impact. If damaging evidence is going to be brought out by one’s adversary, an attorney may choose to reveal this information first to the judge and/or jury, thereby stealing the adversary’s thunder. This entry describes research
To obtain a criminal conviction, the prosecution must establish the presence of two elements at the time of the crime—namely, actus reus (“guilty act”) and mens rea (“guilty mind”). A failure to show the presence of these elements will lead to an unconditional acquittal of the charged crime. Because both must be proven with evidence
To better explain how jurors make decisions in trial, psychologists have proposed a variety of decision-making models. Some research has examined the decision-making process at the jury level, but the majority of research has examined juror decision-making processes at the individual level. These models are typically grouped into two categories: explanation-based models and mathematical models.
The Malingering Probability Scale (MPS) was developed in the mid-1990s as a self-report instrument to estimate the probability of malingering, taking account of base rates in underlying populations. The instrument was based on three premises: (1) that psychopathology expresses itself in clearly defined syndromes for which certain symptoms, though perhaps plausibly related, have very low
As society becomes increasingly more diverse culturally and linguistically, translated testimony will become a more frequent component of the American justice system. Due to the complex nature of the translation process, errors and misunderstandings of interpreted testimony are nearly unavoidable and can affect jurors’ perceptions of a trial. Misjudgments may occur due to the inadvertent
Perseveration, a cognitive phenomenon with implications across various domains of psychology, serves as a fascinating subject of inquiry in the realm of human cognition and behavior. This article delves into the multifaceted nature of perseveration, beginning with an exploration of its theoretical underpinnings in cognitive psychology and its neurological underpinnings. The article subsequently examines the
The MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Treatment (MacCAT-T) is an instrument designed to assess decision-making capacity. Designed as part of the MacArthur Competence Treatment Competence Study, a multiyear, multisite effort named for the well-known philanthropic foundation, the tool operationalizes established elements of competent decisions. The semistructured instrument, which can be completed within 20 to 30
The U.S. Supreme Court conducts appellate review hearings of lower-court decisions, relying on written briefs and oral arguments by counsel for the parties to help the justices formulate opinions as to cases’ outcomes. The number of petitions from parties seeking to have the Supreme Court grant a hearing on their appeal far exceeds the number
This article on preschoolers offers a comprehensive exploration of the developmental milestones, learning and education, challenges, and considerations related to children within the preschool age range. Covering cognitive, social, emotional, and language development, the article delves into key theories and milestones in each domain. It discusses the significance of early childhood education, the role of
The MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Clinical Research (MacCAT-CR) provides a semi-structured assessment format for evaluating abilities related to the decisional capacity of subjects in clinical research. Four component abilities of a decisional capacity standard are assessed: understanding, appreciation, reasoning, and choice. Administration of the instrument begins with the disclosure of selected information about a
Most states allow victims and/or victims’ survivors to speak during the sentencing phase of trials as to the pain they have suffered as a result of the crime. Such proclamations, called “victim impact statements,” are extremely controversial. Some legal experts posit that victims and/or victims’ survivors have the right to speak publicly about the harm
Puberty, a transformative period of biological, psychological, and social development, marks the transition from childhood to adolescence. This article delves into the multifaceted aspects of puberty, encompassing the biological changes driven by hormonal fluctuations, cognitive and emotional growth, and the profound impact of social and cultural factors. Exploring both the challenges and opportunities that arise
Mental health professionals often conduct evaluations to assist courts in determining whether a criminal defendant is competent to participate in the adjudicatory process. A variety of instruments have been developed to help structure these forensic assessments; this entry describes one of the more contemporary competence assessment instruments, the MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool-Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT-CA). In
Voir dire is a legal proceeding during which attorneys and/or judges question prospective jurors (called venirepersons) to determine their fitness for jury duty. The purpose of voir dire is to uncover bias; the procedure is designed to identify and eliminate members of the venire panel who are unable to be impartial and who do not
The Sensorimotor Stage of Development, a pivotal component of Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, represents the initial phase in an individual’s cognitive journey. This article presents a comprehensive exploration of this foundational stage, covering its defining characteristics, the intricacies of its six sub-stages, critiques of Piaget’s theory, and contemporary research findings. By shedding light
The M’Naghten Standard is a legal test to guide juries and courts in their determination of whether a defendant should be found not guilty by reason of insanity. Although defendants were acquitted for crimes they committed while they were legally insane for centuries before the M’Naghten Standard was established, no uniform legal test was adopted
The term witness preparation refers to any type of advice or training given to someone who is going to give sworn testimony with the intention of helping improve the quality of their testimony. All persons who might testify in court are potential candidates for witness preparation, including civil and criminal case defendants, plaintiffs, victims, experts
This article on stages of moral development delves into the foundational theories and contemporary perspectives surrounding the evolution of moral reasoning in individuals. It begins by exploring Jean Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, elucidating the transition from heteronomous to autonomous morality in his two-stage model. Subsequently, it delves into Lawrence Kohlberg’s six-stage theory, delineating the progression
The Interdisciplinary Fitness Interview (IFI) is a semi-structured assessment device designed to help examiners explore systematically the domain of psycholegal abilities associated with adjudicative competency. Originally developed by Stephen Golding and Ronald Roesch for a National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)-sponsored comparative validity study of methods of assessing competency, the IFI was developed on the
The emergence of forensic DNA analysis in the late 1980s has enhanced the criminal justice system’s ability to find the truth. In addition to facilitating the identification and conviction of the guilty, the DNA testing has also exposed a large and growing number of cases in which innocent people were convicted of crimes they did
In this article, we delve into the stages of psychosocial development as proposed by Erik Erikson, a pivotal figure in the field of psychology. These stages, encompassing Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, and Intimacy vs. Isolation, span the entire human lifespan, each
The Insanity Defense Reform Act (IDRA), passed by Congress in 1984, imposed a uniform standard for legal insanity that applies in all federal trials in which the defense is raised; it also established the burden of proof in such cases. Although criminal law is primarily the province of the individual states, the federal government has
The concept of attachment was introduced into psychiatry and psychology by John Bowlby, a British psychoanalyst whose major books appeared between 1969 and 1980. Like many psychoanalysts, beginning with Sigmund Freud, Bowlby was interested in the early childhood roots of later personality patterns, including psychological disorders. But instead of focusing on imagined instincts, such as
This article delves into the multifaceted world of human development theories, exploring the intellectual legacies of prominent theorists who have shaped our understanding of how individuals grow and change over the lifespan. It provides an insightful journey through the Psychoanalytic Perspective, elucidating the stages of psychosexual development as conceptualized by Sigmund Freud and the psychosocial
The Hopkins Competency Assessment Test (HCAT) was developed as a brief screening measure for assessing a patient’s capacity to provide informed consent and prepare advance directives regarding medical treatments. As mental health clinicians have increasingly recognized the importance of accurately assessing a patient’s ability to provide informed con-sent, the need for measures to quantify this
Authoritarian Personality Definition The authoritarian personality describes a type of person who prefers a social system with a strong ruler— the authoritarian person is comfortable being the strong ruler but if the individual is not the strong ruler then he or she will demonstrate complete obedience to another strong authority figure. In both cases, there
Comorbidity, the concurrent presence of two or more distinct medical or psychiatric conditions within an individual, is a complex and pervasive phenomenon with profound implications for the field of psychology. This article offers a comprehensive exploration of comorbidity, tracing its historical context, defining the concept, and examining its etiology and prevalence. It delves into the
The guilty but mentally ill (GBMI) verdict is a verdict option that enables juries and judges to find a defendant guilty of committing an offense while formally acknowledging that the defendant has a mental illness. The GBMI does not usually replace the insanity defense standard but presents an additional verdict option. The GBMI verdict has
Babyfaceness Definition Babyfaceness refers to a configuration of facial qualities that differentiates babies from adults. A baby’s head is characterized by a large cranium with a perpendicular forehead and small lower face with a receding chin. Compared with adults, babies also have relatively large eyes, full cheeks, fine eyebrows, and a “pug” nose. Although the
Diagnosis and labeling in school psychology is a multifaceted process that plays a pivotal role in the educational journey of students. This article delves into the core concepts of diagnosis and labeling, elucidating their importance and implications within the context of school psychology. We explore the intricate process of assessment, evaluation, and collaboration that underpins
The Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales (GSS 1 and GSS 2) are clinical instruments designed to assess levels of interrogative suggestibility. The scales provide a total score for suggestibility based on responses to leading questions and negative feedback. They also provide measures of memory recall and confabulation. The scales are used in forensic assessments and are also
Big Five Personality Traits Definition The Big Five personality traits are the most basic dimensions that shape the structure of human personality and underlie the regularities in people’s thinking, feeling, and behavior. The Big Five are dimensional, which means that each of them describes a continuum between two extreme poles. All people, regardless of gender
Etiology, a fundamental concept in psychology, investigates the origins and causes of various psychological phenomena, from individual behaviors and mental disorders to the complex processes of human development and social interactions. This article provides a comprehensive exploration of etiology within the field of psychology, highlighting its historical development and key theoretical foundations. It discusses the
The Instruments for Assessing Understanding and Appreciation of Miranda Rights were originally developed in the 1970s by Thomas Grisso as a research tool to inform public policy about juveniles’ and adults’ capacities to waive rights. The tool, composed of four distinct instruments, was subsequently adopted for use in juvenile and adult forensic evaluations, and the
Control Motivation Definition Control motivation refers to the motive to exercise at least some control over important events in our lives. The extent to which control motivation is innate or learned remains a point of discussion. But many psychologists argue that virtually all people are motivated to establish a sense of mastery, that is, to
In this article, we delve into the multifaceted realm of Adjustment Disorder, a condition often overlooked yet of paramount significance in the context of school psychology. We begin by explicating its clinical description, diagnostic criteria, and differentiation from other mental health disorders, emphasizing the prevalent age groups affected. Etiological factors and risk components contributing to
The evaluation of competence to stand trial is by far the most common forensic evaluation conducted. It has been estimated that there are between 24,000 and 60,000 of these evaluations carried out across the United States each year. This article describes the Georgia Court Competence Test (GCCT), an instrument used to assess competence to stand trial.
Curiosity Definition Curiosity is a pleasant motivational state involving the tendency to recognize and seek out novel and challenging information and experiences. Curiosity differs from other positive emotions by the strong desire to explore and persist in the activity that initially stimulated an individual’s interest. Although curiosity and enjoyment tend to go in tandem, sometimes
In this article, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is examined through the lens of school psychology, exploring its etiology, diagnosis, and implications for educational practice. The article delves into the genetic and neurobiological underpinnings of ADHD, highlighting the interplay of environmental factors and the diagnostic criteria. It further elucidates the pivotal role of school psychologists
The Fitness Interview Test-Revised (FIT-R) is an instrument designed for use by mental health professionals in evaluations of competence to stand trial. Designed as a structured clinical judgment instrument that guides evaluators through an assessment of the specific psycholegal abilities required of a defendant to stand trial, the FIT-R demonstrates reliability and predictive validity and
Defensive Pessimism Definition Defensive pessimism is a strategy people can use to manage their anxiety. Those who use the strategy feel anxious and out of control as they think about an upcoming situation. In response to those feelings, they set pessimistic expectations about how things will go, and they mentally rehearse all the things they
Offers a comprehensive exploration of this complex neurodevelopmental condition. Beginning with an introduction that defines Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and outlines their historical context and prevalence, the article delves into an understanding of the condition, covering the core symptoms, etiological factors, and neurobiological underpinnings. It then shifts to the critical aspects of diagnosis and assessment
The Financial Capacity Instrument (FCI) is a conceptually based, standardized psychometric instrument designed to directly assess everyday financial activities and abilities relevant to community-dwelling adults. The FCI assesses financial skills at the task, domain, and global levels. The current version of the FCI (FCI-9) consists of 20 financial tasks, 9 domains of financial activity, and
Expertise refers to the psychological processes that underlie the superior achievement of experts, who are typically defined as those who have acquired special skills in, or knowledge of, a particular subject through professional training and practical experience. The term expert has a long history that can be traced all the way back to the training
Bipolar Disorder (Childhood Onset) is a complex and often underrecognized psychiatric condition that manifests in children and adolescents. This article provides a comprehensive overview of this disorder, addressing its definition, etiology, clinical presentation, impact on development and functioning, treatment strategies, prognosis, ethical considerations, current research, and the role of school psychologists. Childhood onset bipolar disorder
A number of states in the United States provide by statute that defendants charged with murder or attempted murder may seek to mitigate the charges against them by claiming, and proving, that when they intentionally murdered or attempted to murder their victim, they did so under the influence of an extreme emotional disturbance (EED) for
Extraversion Definition Extraversion is one of the most studied traits in personality psychology. Some form of the trait has been included in almost every comprehensive model of personality. At the broadest level of description, extraversion reflects the extent to which a person is interested in and enjoys social interaction. However, this broad trait also encompasses
Communication disorders, encompassing various speech, language, and social communication impairments, present a critical concern in the field of school psychology. This article offers a comprehensive examination of these disorders, their classification, etiological factors, assessment methods, and intervention strategies. It explores the impact of communication disorders on the educational and emotional well-being of affected individuals and
Evaluation of Competency to Stand Trial-Revised (ECST-R) is a semistructured interview that is designed to assess criminal defendants’ capacities as they relate to courtroom proceedings. In Dusky v. United States (1960), the U.S. Supreme Court established the three basic prongs required for competency to stand trial: (1) factual understanding of the proceedings, (2) rational understanding
There are differences between men and women, but most scientific studies show that gender differences in psychological characteristics are small. Men and women do not have radically different brains, personality traits, cognitive skills, or behaviors. There are some differences on average, but men and women are not the black versus white opposites that many people
This article delves into the intricacies of Conduct Disorder, a pervasive and debilitating mental health condition that profoundly affects the lives of children and adolescents. Providing an in-depth exploration of this disorder, the article begins with an elucidation of diagnostic criteria and classification in the DSM-5. It navigates through the multifaceted etiological factors, encompassing genetics
Diminished capacity refers to two distinct doctrines. The first, known as the mens rea variant, refers to the use of evidence of mental abnormality to negate a mens rea—a mental state such as intent, required by the definition of the crime charged (the mens rea variant). The second, known as the partial responsibility variant, refers
Hardiness Definition Hardiness is a personality trait that is associated with a person’s ability to manage and respond to stressful life events with coping strategies that turn potentially unfortunate circumstances into learning opportunities. It is characterized by a tendency to be deeply involved, a need to be in control, and a desire to learn from
This article on depression provides a comprehensive exploration of this prevalent and debilitating mental health disorder within the context of school psychology. Beginning with a definition and historical overview, it delves into the multifaceted etiology of depression, encompassing biological, psychological, and environmental factors. The clinical manifestations and diagnostic criteria are elucidated, alongside insights into comorbidity
Although the insanity defense is numerically insignificant, it remains profoundly important to the criminal justice system as the focal point of the ongoing debate on the relationship between legal responsibility, free will, mental illness, and punishment. The insanity defense has substantially survived in spite of persistent philosophical and political criticism. Its history reflects a balance
A widely read book by Erik H. Erikson launched a set of ideas that stimulated the formulation of the concept of identity status. Writing from a psychoanalytic perspective, Erikson construed that individuals at each stage of life (e.g., infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood) have a crisis to resolve, with all positive resolutions enhancing the foundation of
Dyslexia, a common reading disorder affecting individuals of all ages, presents a complex interplay of genetic, neurobiological, and cognitive factors that challenge reading and writing abilities. This article provides an in-depth exploration of dyslexia, addressing its definition, prevalence, historical context, and impact. It delves into the etiological foundations, encompassing genetic determinants and neural underpinnings, and
Evaluations of competency to stand trial are the most common source of referrals to forensic mental health practitioners. While the clear majority of those examined are viewed as competent to proceed, those found incompetent to stand trial (IST) may be subjected to treatment and training to enable them to proceed to trial, typically referred to
Individual Differences Definition Individual differences are the more-or-less enduring psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another and thus help to define each person’s individuality. Among the most important kinds of individual differences are intelligence, personality traits, and values. The study of individual differences is called differential or trait psychology and is more commonly the
Echolalia, a complex communication phenomenon, holds a significant place in the field of psychology, particularly within the context of school psychology. This article explores echolalia from multiple dimensions, including its historical evolution, manifestations in typical development and clinical populations, and strategies for intervention and management. Through an in-depth analysis, it highlights the importance of understanding
The law in the United States requires that criminal defendants be competent to participate in the adjudicatory proceedings against them. Legal competence is a complex construct that includes both the fundamental capacities needed to participate in the process (adjudicative competence) and a degree of autonomy in making important case decisions (decisional competence). This research paper
Introversion Definition Introversion is a stable and heritable personality dimension characterized by a preference for quiet settings and for being alone. This does not mean that introverts are unfriendly, lethargic, or cold; instead, they are better described as reserved and even-paced, more likely to be involved in low, rather than high, stimulation tasks. Introversion is
This article on fears explores the multifaceted nature of fear, delving into its developmental, categorical, and neurobiological dimensions. It dissects the causes and mechanisms underlying fear from psychological, biological, and environmental perspectives, shedding light on the interplay of genetic factors, traumatic experiences, and developmental stages in fear regulation. The article also surveys assessment and treatment
In the United States, it is permissible, with the approval of the judge, for a criminal defendant to act as his or her own attorney when the case goes to court. Legal and clinical issues related to the defendant’s being competent to waive the right to legal representation are discussed in this research paper. In
Masculinity and Femininity Definition The terms masculinity and femininity refer to traits or characteristics typically associated with being male or female, respectively. Traditionally, masculinity and femininity have been conceptualized as opposite ends of a single dimension, with masculinity at one extreme and femininity at the other. By this definition, high masculinity implies the absence of
In this article on Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), we provide a comprehensive overview of this prevalent psychological condition. GAD is characterized by excessive, persistent worry and anxiety, and our exploration delves into its clinical presentation, etiology, diagnostic criteria, and available treatments. We emphasize the importance of early diagnosis and evidence-based interventions, including cognitive-behavioral therapy and
Appellate review of a felony conviction is a constitutional right. The validity of a relinquishment of this or any other constitutional right rests on whether the waiver is made knowingly, intelligently, and voluntarily. There are two distinct arenas where waivers of appeals are encountered: plea bargains in criminal cases and death-sentenced inmates “volunteering” for execution.
Metatraits Definition The term metatraits refers to differences in the extent to which people possess a given trait. Consider the trait of friendliness. People may differ not only in how friendly they are, but also in how much friendliness is relevant to their personality and guides their behavior. Friendliness may be a central aspect of
This article on learning disabilities provides a comprehensive overview of the subject, encompassing the definition, classification, and early diagnosis of learning disabilities, along with insights into the causes and contributing factors. It delves into the impact of learning disabilities on academic performance and social well-being, discussing strategies for intervention, inclusive education, and the vital role
The legal standard for competency to stand trial in the United States was articulated by the U.S. Supreme Court in Dusky v. United States (1960), wherein the Court determined that a defendant must have “sufficient present ability to consult with his lawyer with a reasonable degree of rational understanding” and a “rational as well as
Narcissism Definition Narcissism in its extreme forms is considered a personality disorder. It is defined as a syndrome or combination of characteristics that includes the following: (a) a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, self-importance, and perceived uniqueness; (b) a preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success and power; (c) exhibitionism and attention seeking; (d) emotional reactivity especially
Mental retardation, a complex and multifaceted condition, has long been a subject of clinical, educational, and psychological inquiry. This article explores the nuances of mental retardation, encompassing its historical roots, etiological factors, diagnostic criteria, and strategies for intervention and support. In this context, the article emphasizes the critical importance of early diagnosis and intervention in
Competency to confess refers to a suspect’s ability to make a knowing, intelligent, and voluntary waiver of the Miranda warnings at the time of police questioning. Confessions that are given after a suspect waives his or her Miranda rights are sometimes challenged on the basis that the suspect was not competent to confess, meaning that
Narcissistic Entitlement Definition Narcissistic entitlement refers to a belief that one’s importance, superiority, or uniqueness should result in getting special treatment and receiving more resources than others. For example, individuals high in narcissistic entitlement think that they should get more respect, more money, and more credit for doing the same work as everyone else. Narcissistic
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a debilitating psychiatric condition characterized by intrusive, distressing obsessions and the performance of ritualistic compulsions. This article explores the multifaceted dimensions of OCD, commencing with a historical overview and elucidating its etiological underpinnings, encompassing genetic, neurobiological, cognitive, and environmental factors. Diagnostic criteria, clinical presentations, and the intricacies of differential diagnosis are
The question of whether an individual is competent to be sentenced hinges on the broader question “What is competence?” In general, competence is defined within the legal arena as the mental ability to play an active role in legal proceedings. Competency to be sentenced is a specific form of legal competence that addresses an individual’s
Need for Affiliation Definition Human beings differ from each other in how much they like to associate with other people. Some people avoid being alone, put a high priority on their friendships, and try hard to please other people. Others are just the opposite: They are content to be alone, they don’t put much effort
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) is a clinically significant childhood behavioral disorder characterized by persistent patterns of defiance, hostility, and disobedience toward authority figures. This article offers a comprehensive exploration of ODD, beginning with an introduction that defines the disorder, outlines its prevalence, and provides historical context. The subsequent sections delve into the etiological underpinnings of
The Competency Screening Test (CST) was developed to address the unnecessary pretrial detention and commitment of individuals charged with crimes but likely to be judged fit to stand trial. This forensic instrument was designed and tested to provide objective measures based on the legal criteria for determination of a defendant’s capacity to participate in his
Need for Closure Definition Need for closure refers to the desire or motivation to have a definite answer or knowledge instead of uncertainty or doubt. The need for closure is resolved by any answer, and the answer is accepted simply because it is available. Thus, need for closure does not refer to knowledge or decisions
Psychopathology in children is a critical area of study within developmental psychology and child psychiatry. This article delves into the multifaceted realm of childhood psychopathology, beginning with an exploration of the developmental factors that contribute to its emergence, including genetic, environmental, and attachment influences. It proceeds to discuss prevalent forms of psychopathology in children, such
The Competence to Stand Trial Assessment Instrument, often called the Competency Assessment Instrument (CAI), was developed in 1973 as a companion instrument to the Competency Screening Test (CST) and sought to standardize as well as quantify the criteria for competence to stand trial. The instrument was created by an interdisciplinary team of psychologists, psychiatrists, and
Need for Cognition Definition Need for cognition refers to an individual’s tendency to engage in and enjoy activities that require thinking (e.g., brainstorming puzzles). Some individuals have relatively little motivation for cognitively complex tasks. These individuals are described as being low in need for cognition. Other individuals consistently engage in and enjoy cognitively challenging activities
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a complex and debilitating psychological condition that arises in the aftermath of exposure to severe traumatic events. This article provides an in-depth exploration of PTSD, encompassing its historical context, etiology, risk factors, and symptomatology. The article delves into the psychological intricacies of PTSD, examining cognitive and emotional processes, comorbidities, and
The Competence Assessment for Standing Trial for Defendants With Mental Retardation (CAST*MR) consists of 50 questions and was designed to assess defendants’ understanding of basic legal concepts, ability to assist their attorneys, and ability to relate important information regarding their own legal circumstances. Its purpose is to assist forensic evaluators in determining competency in defendants
Need for Power Definition Need for power is defined as the desire to control or influence others. It is not necessarily associated with actually having power, but instead with the desire to have power. In 1933, Henry Murray defined a long list of what he considered to be basic human needs. These needs were seen
Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) is a complex psychological condition with profound implications for school psychology. This article delves into the multifaceted nature of RAD, beginning with an exploration of its etiology and risk factors, including attachment theory and early-life influences. It proceeds to elucidate the clinical presentation and diagnostic criteria, emphasizing the critical role of
With the Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination and the Fourteenth Amendment right to due process as its grounding, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Miranda v. Arizona (1966), established important procedural protections for criminal suspects in custodial interrogations. Aware of the inherently coercive nature of interrogations and of suspects’ risk of self-incrimination, the Miranda Court mandated
Neuroticism Definition Neuroticism refers to a broad personality trait dimension representing the degree to which a person experiences the world as distressing, threatening, and unsafe. Each individual can be positioned somewhere on this personality dimension between extreme poles: perfect emotional stability versus complete emotional chaos. Highly neurotic individuals tend to be labile (which means they
Selective Mutism is a complex childhood anxiety disorder characterized by a consistent failure to speak in specific social settings, despite demonstrated language abilities in other contexts. This article provides a comprehensive exploration of Selective Mutism, offering insights into its definition, prevalence, etiology, and clinical presentation. It delves into the assessment and diagnosis of the disorder
Personality disorders, formerly known as character disorders, make up a class of heterogeneous mental disorders characterized by chronic, maladaptive, and rigid patterns of cognition, affect, and behavior. They are coded on Axis II of the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV) and reflect patterns of thought, affect, and
Power Motive Definition The key defining element of the power motive is one person having an impact on the behavior or emotions of another, or being concerned about prestige and reputation. This basic imagery is often elaborated with anticipations, actions designed to have impact, prestige, pleasure at reaching the goal, and so forth. The measure
Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD) is a prevalent and clinically significant condition in school-age children, with far-reaching implications for their academic, emotional, and social well-being. This comprehensive article delves into the etiology and risk factors contributing to SAD, shedding light on genetic, attachment-related, neurobiological, and environmental influences. The clinical presentation and diagnostic criteria are discussed in
Rejection Sensitivity in Social Psychology Everyone desires acceptance and dislikes rejection from people who are important to them. Some people, however, are more concerned with rejection, a quality known as rejection sensitivity. Thus, rejection sensitivity refers to a trait that makes some people different from others. Rejection-sensitive people (unlike, or more than, other people) come
Somatoform disorders constitute a complex and multifaceted category within clinical psychology, characterized by the manifestation of physical symptoms with no discernible medical cause. This article provides an in-depth exploration of somatoform disorders, delving into their classification and diagnostic criteria as outlined in the DSM-5. It also examines the intricate web of etiological factors contributing to
Sensation Seeking Definition Sensation seeking is a personality trait defined by the degree to which an individual seeks novel and highly stimulating activities and experiences. People who are high in sensation seeking are attracted to the unknown and as a result consistently seek the new, varied, and unpredictable. Examples of such behaviors are varied, but
This article delves into the multifaceted realm of stuttering, a complex speech disorder characterized by disruptions in fluent communication. Beginning with an overview of its definition, prevalence, and significance, the article examines the etiological underpinnings and risk factors that contribute to its development. It elaborates on the distinct symptoms and characteristics of stuttering, exploring its
Gender Roles Definition Sex roles, or gender roles, consist of the social expectations about the typical and appropriate behavior of men and women. Generally, the female gender role includes the expectation that women and girls exhibit communal traits and behaviors, which focus on interpersonal skill, expressivity, and emotional sensitivity. In contrast, the male gender role
Confidentiality in the realm of school psychology represents a cornerstone of ethical practice, underpinning the safeguarding of students’ personal and psychological well-being. This article examines the ethical and legal dimensions of confidentiality in school psychology, highlighting the delicate balance between protecting sensitive information and the legitimate need to share it with relevant stakeholders. It delves
Shyness Definition Shyness is the ordinary language term most often used to label the emotional state of feeling anxious and inhibited in social situations. As would be expected from a social psychological perspective, situations differ in their power to elicit reactions of social anxiety. Ratings of shyness-eliciting events reveal that interactions with strangers, especially those
This article delves into the intricate landscape of ethical considerations within the field of school psychology, a discipline at the intersection of psychology, education, and legal responsibilities. The article commences with a definition of school psychology and underscores the pivotal role that ethical principles play in guiding the professional conduct of school psychologists. It explores
In the context of participating in a psychology study, social desirability bias refers to the tendency to present one’s self in a favorable way rather than to give accurate answers. In other words, participants have a tendency to answer in ways that make them look good in the eyes of others, regardless of the accuracy
This article provides an examination of the concept of informed consent in the field of psychology. It delves into the historical development of informed consent, highlighting key milestones and ethical guidelines, and discusses the essential components, including information disclosure, capacity assessment, and documentation. Moreover, the article explores the ethical and practical challenges researchers encounter in
Thematic Apperception Test Definition The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a psychological assessment device used to measure an individual’s personality, values, or attitudes. The TAT is a projective test that is made up of 30 pictures that show persons in black and white, engaged in ambiguous activities. The test may be adapted for adults and
Supervision in school psychology is a vital component of ensuring ethical and effective practice in the field. This article explores the historical development, theoretical foundations, and practical applications of supervision in school psychology. It delves into the theoretical models and frameworks that underpin supervision, the key processes and techniques involved, and the ethical and legal
Traits Definition When people describe themselves and others, they tend to use trait descriptors. A trait is marked by the tendency to act, think, and feel in a certain way—over time and across situations. Terms such as disposition, construct, dimension, and personality variable have very similar meanings and psychologists often use them interchangeably. Traits indicate
This article on abuse and neglect provides a comprehensive examination of the multifaceted issues surrounding the mistreatment of children, encompassing a diverse range of abuse types, their profound impact on child development, and the assessment and intervention strategies employed within the field of psychology. Part 1 explores the various forms of abuse, including physical, emotional
Type A and Type B Personality Definition The type A personality is a collection of behaviors that include impatience and a sense of urgency about accomplishing most tasks; aggressiveness and sometimes hostility toward others, especially those who “get in the way”; and a desire for achievement that leads to exaggerated competitiveness and striving for success.
Death and bereavement, fundamental facets of human existence, are subjects of profound significance within the realm of psychology. This article delves into the theoretical frameworks that underpin our understanding of grief, including the Kübler-Ross Model, Dual Process Model, and Attachment Theory. It explores the intricate landscape of psychological reactions to loss, differentiating between normal and
Uniqueness Definition Uniqueness involves a person’s distinctiveness in relation to other people. Such uniqueness can reflect actual behaviors or a person’s perceptions regarding his or her differences. People can vary in the degree to which they want such distinctiveness, with some being highly desirous of specialness (high need for uniqueness) and others who do not
This article on homelessness explores the multifaceted issue of homelessness from a psychological perspective. It defines homelessness and delves into its complex causes, including socioeconomic disparities, personal factors such as mental illness, and structural obstacles like a lack of affordable housing. The article also investigates the profound psychological impact of homelessness, including stress, trauma, and
Most countries have abolished the death penalty. The United States retains the death penalty, although it has attempted to make executions more humane. The Supreme Court has restricted use of the death penalty based on the type of crime and the characteristics of the criminal. Psychologists and other social scientists have conducted research on issues such
Latchkey children, a term denoting youngsters who spend unsupervised time at home due to their parents’ absence, present a complex and multifaceted phenomenon in the realm of school psychology. This article provides a comprehensive exploration of latchkey children, delving into the psychological and emotional impacts they often experience, risk factors contributing to their situations, protective
Mental health professionals are frequently asked to evaluate criminal defendants to assist the courts in determining whether those individuals may have been legally insane (i.e., not criminally responsible) at the time of their crimes. This section discusses the legal concept of criminal responsibility and criteria for insanity, as well as the challenges that forensic experts face
In the modern landscape, divorce has become a prevalent phenomenon, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of divorce adjustment. This article delves into the intricate dynamics of divorce adjustment, exploring its emotional and psychological ramifications, the resulting social and behavioral consequences, and the resilience exhibited over the long term. Drawing from established theoretical frameworks and empirical research
When crime is truly the product of rational choice, the offender commits the act for reasons of personal gain or gratification. His or her behavior is under his or her complete control. How and to what degree, however, might other factors intrude on and compromise his or her ability to exercise free will? The response
This article on parent education and parent training delves into the pivotal role of these practices within the realm of psychology. Beginning with a historical perspective, it traces the evolution of parent education and training, highlighting the contributions of early pioneers and key historical developments. The article explores the underpinning theoretical frameworks, incorporating cognitive, behavioral
Divorce is exceedingly common in the United States, and it can have long-ranging effects on all parties involved, particularly children. In those relatively rare circumstances in which child custody issues cannot be resolved by the parents, the process can become even more contentious and emotional and ultimately end up in the court system. To inform
Parenting, a fundamental aspect of human development, plays a pivotal role in shaping the future of our societies. This article explores the multifaceted realm of parenting from historical perspectives to contemporary research findings. It delves into the various parenting styles, including authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved, dissecting their characteristics and consequences for child development. The
The Parents As Teachers (PAT) program represents a vital component of early childhood education, rooted in theoretical principles of child development and educational psychology. This article explores the historical evolution and theoretical foundations of PAT, detailing its comprehensive components, including home visits, group meetings, and screening methods. Moreover, it provides insights into the program’s remarkable
This article on single-parent families delves into the dynamics and ramifications of single-parent households within the context of school psychology. It offers a comprehensive exploration of the prevalence and reasons behind single-parent families, the impact on child development, and their influence on academic outcomes. Furthermore, the article presents evidence-based interventions and support systems designed to
Classwide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) is a well-established educational intervention in school psychology with a rich historical and theoretical foundation. This article delves into the origins and theoretical underpinnings of CWPT, its core components, and the substantial body of research demonstrating its efficacy. The article emphasizes the academic and socio-emotional benefits of CWPT and explores its
Cooperative learning, a pedagogical approach deeply rooted in theoretical foundations such as Social Interdependence Theory and Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory, has emerged as a pivotal concept in educational psychology. This article delves into the multifaceted dimensions of cooperative learning, exploring its theoretical underpinnings, diverse strategies, and the array of benefits it offers to learners. From improved
This article delves into the realm of mathematics interventions within the domain of school psychology. By elucidating the theoretical underpinnings, it navigates through the intricacies of assessment and identification of mathematical difficulties in students. Further, it comprehensively explores the diverse types of mathematics interventions—ranging from preventive to remedial approaches—coupled with essential insights into their implementation
Peer tutoring is a well-established educational strategy with a rich historical development and strong theoretical foundations. This article provides an in-depth exploration of peer tutoring, tracing its historical origins and delving into the psychological theories that underpin its effectiveness. It discusses various types of peer tutoring and highlights the manifold benefits it offers, both academically
Reading is a fundamental skill in education, and the effective development of reading abilities is a paramount concern in school psychology. This article delves into the world of reading interventions and strategies, offering an in-depth exploration of the theoretical frameworks that underpin them, the various types of reading difficulties students may encounter, and the critical
Loneliness Definition Loneliness is defined as the distressing experience that occurs when one’s social relationships are perceived to be less in quantity, and especially in quality, than desired. Being alone and experiencing loneliness are not the same thing. People can be alone without feeling lonely and can feel lonely even when with other people. Loneliness
The Need to Belong Definition The need to belong refers to the idea that humans have a fundamental motivation to be accepted into relation-ships with others and to be a part of social groups. The fact that belongingness is a need means that human beings must establish and maintain a minimum quantity of enduring relationships.
Nonverbal Cues Definition Nonverbal cues are all potentially informative behaviors that are not purely linguistic in content. Visible nonverbal cues include facial expressions, head movements, posture, body and hand movements, self-and other-touching, leg positions and movements, interpersonal gaze, directness of interpersonal orientation, interpersonal distance, and synchrony or mimicry between people. Auditory nonverbal cues include discrete
Ostracism Definition Ostracism refers to the act of ignoring and excluding individuals. It is differentiated from social exclusion in that ostracism generally requires ignoring or lack of attention in addition to social exclusion. Ostracism is distinguishable from overt acts of rejection and bullying because rather than combining acts of exclusion with verbal or physical abuse
Propinquity Definition Propinquity refers to the proximity or physical closeness of one person to another. The greater the degree of propinquity, the more likely that two people will be attracted to each other and become friends. Propinquity is usually thought of in terms of functional distance—that is, the likelihood of coming into contact with another
Rejection Definition Defined broadly, social rejection refers to one’s perceived reduction of social acceptance, group inclusion, or sense of belonging. Social psychologists study real, imagined, and implied rejection in a variety of forms and contexts. Explicit rejection, exclusion, and ostracism are different kinds of rejection than can occur within groups or dyadic relationships of a
Romantic love has been found in every historical era and in every culture for which data are available. To those familiar with the research literature, romantic love today is no longer the mystery it has been considered to be throughout the ages. Nevertheless, there is much more to learn, and romantic love remains a thriving
Romantic Secrecy Definition Romantic secrecy is the process by which an individual deliberately conceals his or her ongoing romantic relationship from a person or persons outside of the relationship. Romantic secrecy is typically associated with deception about the nature of a romantic relationship. Romantic secrecy occurs most clearly when an individual conceals all aspects of
Sex Drive Definition Sex drive represents a basic motivation to pursue and initiate sexual activity and gratification and is tightly regulated by sex hormones—testosterone in men and both testosterone and estrogen in women. In other words, sex drive can be thought of as a person’s general urge to have sex. Sex Drive History and Modern
Sexual Desire Definition Sexual desire is typically viewed as an interest in sexual objects or activities. More precisely, it is the subjective feeling of wanting to engage in sex. Sexual desire is sometimes, but not always, accompanied by genital arousal (such as penile erection in men and vaginal lubrication in women). Sexual desire can be
Eyewitnesses to a crime or other incident often recall that event dozens of times while waiting for a trial that may take place months or even years later. These recall episodes are often in response to questioning by arresting officers, police detectives, district attorneys, friends, other witnesses, private investigators, and defense attorneys, among others. Even
Similarity-Attraction Effect Definition The similarity-attraction effect refers to the widespread tendency of people to be attracted to others who are similar to themselves in important respects. Attraction means not strictly physical attraction but, rather, liking for or wanting to be around the person. Many different dimensions of similarity have been studied, in both friendship and
Reconstructive memory refers to a class of memory theories that claim that the experience of remembering an event involves processes that make use of partial fragmentary information as well as a set of rules for combining that information into a coherent view of the past event. These theories provide a powerful way of understanding how
Social Exclusion Definition Social exclusion refers to keeping an individual or group out of social situations. It typically occurs in the context that the individual or group is believed to possess undesirable characteristics or characteristics deemed unworthy of attention. Acts of social exclusion are observed in humans and other social animals. Researchers agree that social
The presence-of-counsel safeguard, provided by the Sixth Amendment of the United States Constitution, guarantees every defendant the right to an attorney both at trial and during pretrial proceedings, including live, postindictment lineups. The presence of an attorney at live, postindictment lineups serves to protect defendants from erroneous convictions resulting from mistaken eyewitness identifications by allowing
Social Support Definition In general, social support refers to the various ways in which individuals aid others. Social support has been documented as playing an important and positive role in the health and well-being of individuals. To receive support from another, one must participate in at least one important relationship. However, social support has often
Human memory, however accurate generally, is not a perfect processing system. Over time, our memory becomes less accurate, primarily for two reasons. First, our memory is not permanent, and information fades from memory over time. Most people are familiar from experience with this unfortunate feature of memory but are less familiar with the second factor
People differ in how they approach others. Some people tend to approach others in a cooperative manner, whereas other people tend to approach others in a more self-centered manner. Such social dispositions have been demonstrated to be quite important in various contexts and are often examined under the heading of social value orientation. This concept
The “popout” effect refers to the subjective experience of witnesses who report virtually immediate or apparently automatic recognition of the perpetrator of a crime from a photo array or lineup. Researchers have detected this experience among witnesses by asking them to endorse one of several statements about the decision strategy they used when making their
Teasing is central to human social life. In fact, in one study of grade-school children, more than 96% of respondents said they had been teased, and more than 50% admitted to teasing others. Teasing is as varied as the people doing the teasing and being teased. Teasing can be purely physical or verbal, and ranges