As originally proposed by Kenneth Deffenbacher, the optimality hypothesis states that the likelihood of obtaining statistically reliable positive correlations of witness confidence and accuracy varies directly with the degree of optimality of information-processing conditions present for the witness at stimulus encoding, during memory storage (retention interval), and at memory test. The more nearly ideal the
Transactive Memory Definition An important function of relationships is information sharing. People often look to their interpersonal and work relationships for needed information: the forgotten name of a common acquaintance, an opinion on possible investment strategies, or help with an unfamiliar task such as setting up a wireless network. People in relationships often share the
In its 1972 ruling in Neil v. Biggers, the U.S. Supreme Court outlined five criteria that should be used in evaluating the accuracy of eyewitness identifications: the witness’s certainty, his or her quality of view, the amount of attention paid to the culprit, the agreement between the witness’s description and the suspect, and the amount
Trust Definition Trust refers to a person’s confident belief that another’s motivations are benevolent toward him or her and that the other person will therefore be responsive to his or her needs. Trust is typically viewed as a belief about a specific person, though it has also been viewed as a personality trait characterizing people’s
In cases where a criminal’s identity is unknown to an eyewitness and investigators have not yet pinpointed a suspect, witnesses may be asked to search through a large number of photographs for a picture of the criminal. This process is known as a mug shot search because the photographs typically come from a database of
Unrequited Love Definition Unrequited love refers to instances when one person (the would-be lover) feels romantic, passionate feelings for an individual who does not return the same feelings (the rejector). Research indicates that unrequited love is quite common. Almost everyone in the United States has either loved someone who did not love them in return
Eyewitness research has repeatedly shown that exposure to postevent information can affect a witness’s ability to accurately report details of an originally encoded event. In everyday life, postevent information might be encountered when individuals who have shared the same experience discuss this with one another. Even when each person has witnessed the same event, their
Civil commitment is the legal process under which individuals with mental illness may be subjected to involuntary hospitalization. This research paper discusses the impact and consequences of commitment, the justifications for the resulting intrusion on liberty, the statutory criteria for commitment, and the constitutional requirements that underlie them. It examines the requirement that candidates for
The cross-race effect (CRE, also referred to as the own-race bias or other-race effect) is a facial recognition phenomenon in which individuals show superior performance in identifying faces of their own race when compared with memory for faces of another, less familiar race. Over three decades of research on the CRE suggests a rather robust
The behavior analysis interview (BAI) is a set of 15 predetermined standardized questions designed to elicit differential responses from innocent and guilty suspects at the outset of a police interview. Police investigators who are reasonably certain of a suspect’s guilt may submit the suspect to persuasive interrogation techniques meant to break down the suspect’s resistance;
A double-blind lineup refers to a lineup procedure in which both the witness and the lineup administrator are unaware of which lineup member is the suspect under investigation. Scholars began recommending this procedure, in contrast to the typical procedure in which the lineup administrator knows which lineup member is the suspect, because of concerns that
Academic achievement assessment in school psychology is a critical and multifaceted practice essential to understanding and enhancing the educational journey of students. This article explores the historical evolution, theoretical foundations, purpose, and methodologies of academic achievement assessment within the context of school psychology. It delves into the pivotal role school psychologists play in this process
Since the 1970s, some clinical psychologists (often referred to as operational psychologists) have become more actively involved in the resolution of critical incident situations, which are classified as either hostage situations or crisis intervention situations. Police psychologists are valuable contributors to the training of tactical and crisis and hostage negotiators. On-scene responsibilities for operational psychologists
As the potential pool of elder witnesses continues to expand with the aging U.S. population, the age group referred to in the literature as older adults or seniors has become of greater interest to researchers. The group typically comprises healthy, active members of the community falling into the 60- to 80-year age band. Older eyewitnesses
Adaptive behavior assessment stands as a pivotal domain within the field of school psychology, playing a vital role in understanding and supporting the holistic development of students. This comprehensive article delves into the multifaceted world of adaptive behavior assessment in educational settings. Beginning with a historical perspective that traces the evolution of assessment tools and
This article examines the causes of critical incident stress in law enforcement officers. It discusses how, by identifying critical incident stressors and the personal, team, and organizational factors that render them meaningful, law enforcement agencies can proactively influence officers’ critical incident stress outcomes. To appreciate how this can be accomplished, it is necessary to understand the
A distinction between estimator and system variables is made in the eyewitness research literature between two categories or types of variables that influence the accuracy of eyewitness accounts. System variables are those that are (or can be) under the control of the justice system, whereas estimator variables cannot be controlled by the justice system. Examples
This article on applied behavior analysis (ABA) in school psychology provides a comprehensive overview of this evidence-based approach’s critical role in educational settings. ABA, rooted in behaviorism, has a rich historical development, with early pioneers shaping its evolution in the context of school psychology. The article delves into the fundamental principles of ABA, emphasizing its
Deception is defined, for the purposes of this article, as a successful or unsuccessful deliberate attempt to create in another a belief that the sender of the message considers to be untrue. Although it is hard to think of a context in which no deception transpires, the study of deception and how to detect it
When assessing the potential of an eyewitness, among the first things an investigator has to decide is whether or not the witness had an opportunity to observe what took place for a sufficient time. The decision is likely to be influenced by a witness’s assessment of the length and quality of exposure to a perpetrator’s
Authentic assessment in school psychology is a multifaceted approach to evaluating student learning that aligns assessment practices with real-world contexts and tasks. This article delves into the core principles and historical development of authentic assessment, emphasizing its significance in contemporary education. It explores the various types of authentic assessments, including performance-based assessments, real-world simulations, and
Wizards of deception detection are rare individuals who achieve scores of 80% or higher on at least two of three videotaped lie detection tests. Most people’s accuracy on these tests is about 50%, as would be expected by chance alone. Of more than 15,000 people tested, only 47 have been so classified. Although these individuals
Police investigators will frequently request that witnesses to a crime provide verbal descriptions of the alleged perpetrator. Such descriptions provide critical information that the police use throughout an investigation, from the identification of possible suspects in the vicinity of the crime, to the selection of photographs for mug books or lineup identification arrays, to the
Behavioral assessment plays a pivotal role in the field of school psychology, contributing significantly to the understanding and support of students with behavioral challenges. This article explores the fundamentals of behavioral assessment within the context of school psychology, focusing on its types, applications, challenges, and ethical considerations. We begin by defining behavioral assessment and highlighting
The credibility and reliability of children’s testimony are particularly important in instances where children are called on as primary witnesses in legal proceedings, such as sexual abuse or child custody cases. Although it is expected for children to provide truthful statements about given events, children may also give false reports in these situations for a
People who wear a disguise are attempting to conceal their appearance or change how they look. Culprits may wear any of a number of possible disguises for the commission of a crime. For example, a bank robber may wear a ski mask, or dark sunglasses and a knit cap. Changes in facial characteristics may result
Bias in testing represents a critical concern within the realm of school psychology, as it profoundly influences the accuracy and fairness of assessments used to understand students’ abilities and needs. This comprehensive article explores the multifaceted issue of bias in testing within the context of school psychology. It delves into the various forms of bias
High-stakes lies occur where there are large positive consequences of getting away with the lie or large negative consequences of getting caught. Because the outcome of the lie is of considerable concern to the liar, it follows that he or she will probably experience more guilt and/or detection anxiety than when telling low-stakes lies. In
A substantial base of laboratory research is now available to aid our understanding of eyewitness identification processes and to support recommendations for lineup reform. However, there are also a limited number of peer-reviewed, published studies that measure eyewitness responses in real police cases. Although few, the studies include large-scale investigations involving a sizable combined sample
The Buros Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMY) holds a central and indispensable role in the field of school psychology. This article provides an in-depth exploration of the Buros MMY, a trusted and comprehensive resource for assessing psychological and educational tests. Beginning with its historical origins and evolution, the article elucidates the pivotal role played by the
Cognitive load interview protocols are designed to make interviews more demanding for suspects. This increased demand has a greater effect on liars than on truth tellers because liars already find being interviewed more mentally taxing than do truth tellers. The result is that cognitive load interview protocols facilitate discrimination between liars and truth tellers. Lying
This research paper focuses on the degree to which experts and others are persuaded that each of a number of factors influences the accuracy of eyewitness identifications. Supreme Court cases, among them United States v. Amaral (1973) and Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993), have opened avenues of research addressing how the influence of various
Career assessment plays a pivotal role in the field of school psychology, serving as a cornerstone for guiding students’ educational and vocational choices. This article delves into the multifaceted domain of career assessment in school psychology, exploring its theoretical underpinnings, assessment methods, and practical applications. Beginning with a historical overview, it examines the evolution of
P300 is a brain wave derived from the electroencephalogram (EEG), which has recently been used as a novel information channel in the detection of deception. The traditional channels are recorded from the autonomic nervous system and include physiological activity such as respiration pattern, blood pressure, and skin conductance. In contrast, the EEG is a record
Lay beliefs about factors that influence the reliability of eyewitness testimony have been assessed with a variety of survey and experimental methods. When compared with expert opinion about the effects of these factors, the lay public frequently holds beliefs that would be considered incorrect in the light of psychological research on eyewitness memory. A brief
Classroom observation, a cornerstone of school psychology, offers vital insights into student experiences. This article explores its historical roots, theoretical foundations, methods, and applications. Classroom observation’s role in assessment and intervention, benefits, challenges, and ethical considerations are discussed. Emerging trends and technological advancements underscore its continued relevance in school psychology. Introduction Definition and Significance of
Traditional means of lie detection, such as the polygraph, rely on measurements of peripheral nervous system (PNS) activity. Recent advances in noninvasive brain imaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), have aroused public and academic interest in developing a viable alternative. This research paper briefly explains the technique of MRI and its application
When a crime has been committed and the identity of the perpetrator is unknown, eyewitnesses are often asked to attempt to create a likeness of the face of the perpetrator. An eyewitness can do this by creating a facial composite, either through the assistance of a sketch artist or by using a mechanized composite system.
Criterion-referenced assessment plays a pivotal role in the field of school psychology, offering a precise means to evaluate students’ performance against specific educational objectives. This article delves into the multifaceted realm of criterion-referenced assessment, elucidating its theoretical underpinnings, diverse methodologies, and applications within educational settings. It highlights the historical evolution of this assessment approach, explores
Trying to find a tell-tale sign of deceit (a “Pinocchio’s nose”) in human nonverbal behavior has been the subject of much effort, and many suggestions have been put forward. In lay people’s thinking and in police interrogation manuals alike, one can find numerous ideas about detecting deceit from nonverbal behaviors such as eye contact or
We do not necessarily remember our experiences the way they really happened—and what is more, remembering an experience does not necessarily mean it actually happened at all. In little more than a decade, scientists have discovered that people can have detailed, emotion-filled, and utterly false memories. False memories are memories that are partly or wholly
Curriculum-Based Assessment (CBA) stands as a cornerstone of modern educational practices in school psychology, enabling professionals to evaluate and support student learning effectively. This article delves into the significance of CBA within the field, tracing its historical evolution and highlighting its theoretical foundations. It also provides a comprehensive overview of the methods and techniques employed
People sometimes try to determine whether they have actually experienced an event they have in mind, or whether this memory is based on imagination. The processes by which a person attributes a memory to an actual experience (external source) or imagination (internal source) is called reality monitoring (RM). Although the RM concept is not related
Forced confabulation can occur if an individual erroneously incorporates into his or her memory of an event, self-generated information that was not actually part of that event. Forced confabulation most commonly occurs when an individual (a) experiences an event, (b) thinks about or talks about that event, and (c) later confuses what actually occurred with
Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) is a pivotal practice in school psychology, designed to understand and address challenging behaviors among students. This comprehensive article explores the evolution and significance of Functional Behavioral Assessment, rooted in theoretical foundations such as behavioral theory and Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA). It delves into the methods and procedures involved in conducting
The paradigmatic finding from research on deception detection is that people are poor at discriminating between liars and truth tellers. This research paper shows, however, that deception detection performance can be significantly improved if the investigator is allowed to interview the suspect, is given background information about the case and the suspect, and knows how
The use of hypnosis to enhance the memory of a witness to a crime often results not only in some additional accurate recall of information about the event but also in the incorporation of additional misinformation into the witness’s memory of the event and a general increase in his or her confidence in the veracity
Infant assessment in school psychology plays a pivotal role in early intervention and support for young children and their families. This article explores the definition and significance of infant assessment, tracing its historical development and theoretical foundations. It delves into the various methods and tools employed to assess infants’ developmental milestones and potential challenges. Furthermore
Contact Hypothesis Definition The contact hypothesis lies at the center of social psychological research on prejudice reduction. The effort to understand if contact between groups would facilitate intergroup relations was triggered after World War II by the human relations movement. In its simplest form, the contact hypothesis proposes that contact between individuals of different groups
Perhaps the ultimate form of eyewitness evidence is the identification of a suspect from a live or photo lineup, as opposed to more general information provided by a witness, such as a verbal description of an event. Best-practice recommendations in this area are based on a combination of some good procedures used by law enforcement
Intelligence assessment plays a pivotal role in school psychology, aiding in the understanding of cognitive abilities and informing educational strategies. This article explores the multifaceted landscape of intelligence assessment, delving into its historical evolution, theoretical underpinnings, assessment methods, and ethical considerations. It also highlights the practical applications of intelligence assessment in educational planning, special education
Social psychologist Elliot Aronson introduced the jigsaw classroom in 1971, while a professor at the University of Texas at Austin. It was first used as a teaching/learning strategy to help defuse a potentially explosive situation in Austin—its racially segregated schools were slowly desegregating. The primary purpose of the technique was to help teachers eliminate desegregated
The instructions given to a witness prior to the presentation of a lineup have an important influence on how the witness views the identification task and how the witness makes a decision whether to make an identification or whom to identify. Biased Versus Unbiased Instructions Because the suspect in the lineup may be innocent, it
In the realm of school psychology, assessment stands as a cornerstone practice, and interviewing serves as a dynamic tool within this domain. This article delves into the multifaceted world of interviewing in school psychology, exploring its significance, evolution, and varied applications. It outlines different types of interviews used by school psychologists, emphasizing their roles and
Prejudice Reduction Definition Prejudice reduction refers to a decrease in (most often) negative attitudes or evaluations that individuals hold in relation to other people. These negative attitudes are based on the groups to which people belong, such as a White person disliking someone because he or she is a Black person. Although social psychologists have
Lineup fillers prevent unreliable witnesses from guessing the identity of the police suspect and should allow for a fair recognition test for those witnesses who do remember the culprit. The primary strategies for selecting fillers for criminal identification lineups are presented in this entry. The suspect-matched and perpetrator-description-matched strategies are two methods of constructing lineups
Mental age, a foundational concept in the field of school psychology, has a rich history and multifaceted applications in cognitive assessment. This article delves into the significance of mental age within the context of school psychology assessment. It explores its historical evolution, theoretical underpinnings, assessment methods, interpretations, and critiques. Additionally, the article examines the contemporary
Racism Definition Racism is the systematic implementation of a doctrine of racial supremacy that maintains the superiority of one race over another. Background, Components, and Modern Usage of Racism Racial supremacy is the hallmark of racism, but it is also often characterized by a belief that racial groups are genetically isolated, biologically based entities that
A lineup is constructed by placing a person suspected of committing a crime (the suspect) among a collection of innocent people (fillers). An eyewitness is asked to identify the offender from this collection, with a suitable admonition that the offender may not be present. A properly conducted lineup can provide evidence that the suspect is
Motor assessment plays a pivotal role in school psychology, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of students’ development and learning. This article explores the significance, historical context, and theoretical foundations of motor assessment. It delves into various methods and tools used to assess motor skills, including popular assessments such as the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency
Sexism Definition Sexism refers to prejudice or bias toward people based on their gender; it encompasses beliefs (e.g., in different roles for men and women), emotions (e.g., disliking powerful women), and behavior (e.g., sexual harassment) that support gender inequality. Although originally conceived as antipathy toward women, sexism includes subjectively positive but patronizing beliefs (e.g., that
Serving as an important safeguard against wrongful convictions, motions to suppress help keep evidence that was gathered improperly or unfairly from consideration at trial. Psychological research has examined the validity of several assumptions underlying the effectiveness of motions to suppress lineup identifications. These studies have examined judges’ and attorneys’ knowledge about eyewitness memory in general
This article explores neuropsychological assessment in school psychology. It covers its definition, historical evolution, theoretical foundations, assessment tools, and ethical considerations. The article highlights its practical applications in identifying learning disabilities and neurodevelopmental disorders, emphasizing collaborative efforts among professionals. It discusses challenges, ethics, and emerging trends, concluding with the enduring significance of neuropsychological assessment in
Stereotypes Definition Stereotypes are generalized beliefs about the characteristics that are associated with the members of a social group. In 1922, the journalist Walter Lippmann first popularized the term stereotype, which he described as the image people have in their heads of what a social group is like. Early researchers examined the content of social
Eyewitnesses are often asked to indicate how confident they are in the accuracy of their identification and other testimony-relevant judgments. These reports are highly influential in evaluations of identification accuracy. Unfortunately, eyewitnesses’ confidence reports are highly malleable, easily influenced by myriad variables. The solution is to record witnesses’ confidence in their identification and report of
Outcomes-Based Assessment (OBA) in school psychology is a comprehensive and evolving approach to evaluating student performance and well-being. This article delves into the definition and significance of OBA in the realm of school psychology, providing insights into its historical evolution and development. It also outlines the objectives and structure of the article. The foundation of
Stigma Definition Stigma is an attribute or characteristic that marks a person as different from others and that extensively discredits his or her identity. Ancient Greeks coined the term stigma to describe a mark cut or burned into the body that designated the bearer as someone who was morally defective, such as a slave, criminal
The confidence that eyewitnesses express in their decision at an identification test or lineup has long been recognized within the criminal justice system as an indicator of the likely reliability or accuracy of the witness. In contrast, psychology researchers have downplayed the diagnostic value of eyewitness identification confidence. Although only a relatively small proportion of
Performance-Based Assessment (PBA) in school psychology is a dynamic approach to evaluating students’ skills, knowledge, and abilities. This article explores the significance and evolution of PBA, underpinned by cognitive learning theories and constructivist paradigms. We delve into the various methods and techniques employed in performance-based assessment, such as portfolio assessments, project-based tasks, and rubrics, highlighting
Symbolic Racism Definition Symbolic racism is a form of prejudice that Whites in particular hold against Blacks, although it is likely to be held in some measure by other American ethnic groups, and in principle some version of it may target groups other than Blacks. Symbolic racism is usually described as a coherent belief system
Many people are familiar with the live lineups and photo lineups shown in television crime dramas. Increasingly, however, police departments are making use of computer technology to construct lineups and administer them to witnesses. Computer technology can be used to build better lineups by tapping into larger databases of faces to provide better choices to
Personality assessment in school psychology is a critical practice for understanding and supporting students’ emotional and behavioral development. This article provides an overview of the historical evolution, theoretical foundations, assessment methods, applications, and ethical considerations related to personality assessment in educational settings. It also explores emerging trends and emphasizes the continued significance of this field
Achievement Motivation Definition The term achievement motivation may be defined by independently considering the words achievement and motivation. Achievement refers to competence (a condition or quality of effectiveness, ability, sufficiency, or success). Motivation refers to the energization (instigation) and direction (aim) of behavior. Thus, achievement motivation may be defined as the energization and direction of
Eyewitness information is the key element in solving many crimes, yet the police are often poorly trained in conducting information-gathering interviews, and they make avoidable mistakes. To rectify this situation, Ronald Fisher and Edward Geiselman developed the Cognitive Interview (CI) procedure to collect information from cooperative witnesses. The CI techniques are based on scientific principles
Portfolio assessment is a versatile and informative method for evaluating student learning and achievement in school psychology. This comprehensive article explores the historical development, theoretical foundations, design principles, and diverse applications of portfolio assessment. We delve into its role in tracking progress, enhancing formative assessment, and promoting reflective teaching, all while addressing the needs of
Agreeableness Definition Agreeableness is one of the five major dimensions of personality within the five-factor, structural approach to personality (also known as the Big Five). It is an abstract, higher-level summary term for a set of family relations among lower-level traits that describe individual differences in being likable, pleasant, and harmonious in interactions with others.
A bias in an identification procedure is any factor— other than recognition—that leads witnesses to select a person. Clothing bias can occur whenever someone is viewed in an identification procedure wearing clothing that matches the witness’s description of the clothing worn during the crime. A witness may mistakenly select the suspect based on the clothing
Preschool assessment in school psychology plays a pivotal role in understanding and supporting the development of young children. This article provides a comprehensive overview of preschool assessment, covering its definition, historical evolution, theoretical foundations, methods, applications, challenges, ethical considerations, and future trends. Highlighting the significance of early childhood assessment, this article emphasizes the role of
In its broadest sense, legal authoritarianism refers to the constellation of beliefs held about the legal system that is relevant to juror decision making. Because jurors enter trials with preconceived notions about evidence, criminal conduct, and the criminal justice system in general, understanding these beliefs allows researchers to better understand how jurors process information and
Prior to viewing a lineup, eyewitnesses to crimes are often given various instructions by lineup administrators. Among these is the appearance-change instruction, which is used to inform the eyewitness that the criminal’s appearance in the lineup may be different from his or her appearance at the time of the crime. Generally, this alteration in appearance
The use of projective testing in school psychology has a rich history and continues to play a vital role in understanding students’ emotional and behavioral well-being. This article provides an overview of projective testing, discussing its theoretical foundations rooted in psychoanalytic, humanistic, and psychodynamic theories. It delves into common projective tests employed by school psychologists
Negotiation is extremely common in legal settings. In the criminal context, most cases are resolved through the plea bargaining process rather than through trials. Similarly, many more civil disputes are resolved by private settlement than go to trial. Transactional lawyers spend much of their time negotiating deals and contracts. In practice, lawyers will negotiate with
Alcohol consumption has a significant effect on eyewitness identification abilities, including the accuracy of perpetrator descriptions and identification accuracy in showups (an identification procedure where only one individual is shown to the witness) and lineups (an identification procedure where several individuals, usually six in the United States, are shown to the eyewitness). Understanding the effects
Psychometric g, or the general intelligence factor, is a critical concept in school psychology. This article explores its historical development, theoretical foundations, assessment methods, and applications. It also addresses challenges, ethical considerations, and future trends in understanding and using g in school psychology. Introduction Definition and Significance of Psychometric g in School Psychology Psychometric g
It is well established that if a verdict option is favored by a substantial (e.g., two-thirds) majority of jurors prior to deliberation, the jury is very likely to ultimately reach that verdict. A number of studies have suggested the following qualification to this simple rule—in criminal juries, pro-acquittal factions tend to be more influential than
The Uniform Child Custody Evaluation System (UCCES) provides a method of gathering and organizing information during child custody evaluations. It proposes to standardize the process for evaluations as a remedy for the unsystematic methods and procedures that are frequently employed in these cases. Although it offers a specific process for structuring data collection, it does
Psychological reports play a pivotal role in school psychology, facilitating effective communication, decision-making, and intervention planning. This article explores the definition, historical evolution, and significance of psychological reports in the context of school psychology. It delves into the essential components of psychological reports, ethical considerations, and best practices for their preparation. The article also highlights
Litigation stress is best understood as consisting of negative physical and psychological reactions to being involved in a legal action. Indeed, litigation itself is mentioned specifically as a stressor in the multiaxial Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Text Revised (fourth edition), in Axis IV (Psychosocial and Environmental Problems). A variety of physical and emotional
When families fail to care for and protect children, states have the authority, when granted legal jurisdiction by the court, to initiate family services and to provide substitute care for the children. The prevailing legal standard for the care and protection of children is the best interest standard. The state is expected to act in
The Responsiveness to Intervention (RTI) model in school psychology is a dynamic approach designed to address the diverse needs of students through tiered interventions, data-driven decision-making, and collaboration among professionals. This article explores the theoretical foundations, implementation strategies, and assessment of the RTI model. It delves into the evolution of this model, its historical context
Plea bargaining is a process in a criminal case whereby the defendant agrees with the prosecutor to plead guilty (or no contest) in exchange for a reduction in charges or a reduction of sentence. By pleading guilty, the defendant gives up the right to go to trial. Contrary to the widespread belief that criminal cases
The tender years doctrine, or the practice of awarding infants and young children to mothers in custody disputes, was employed in most state courts from the late 19th century until the 1960s. The tender years doctrine is based on the idea that mothers have superior, “natural” nurturing abilities and a biological connection to their infants.
Social-emotional assessment in school psychology plays a pivotal role in fostering students’ emotional well-being, interpersonal skills, and overall development. This comprehensive article delves into the multifaceted domain of social-emotional assessment, emphasizing its significance in educational contexts. Beginning with an exploration of its historical evolution and theoretical underpinnings, we delve into the various methods and tools
This article focuses on the psychology of procedural justice (PJ) and the law. PJ is a judgment about the fairness of the procedures employed to resolve conflict. Psychological research shows that PJ enhances satisfaction with conflict procedures and outcomes independent of actual dispute outcomes or outcome fairness. Among the procedural criteria that enhance fairness are having
The Parenting Stress Index (PSI), developed by Richard Abidin in 1976, is a screening and diagnostic assessment tool commonly used to measure the magnitude of stress in the parent-child system. Abidin describes several potential uses of the PSI including screening for the early identification of parenting and family characteristics that fail to produce normal development
Sociometric assessment plays a crucial role in understanding and fostering social dynamics in educational settings. This article delves into the world of sociometric assessment in school psychology, exploring its significance, historical evolution, and theoretical foundations. It discusses the methods and tools used for sociometric assessment, ethical considerations, and the various applications and benefits of this
Androgyny Definition The term androgyny is derived from the Greek andro (man) and gyne (woman). The popular conception of androgyny is a blend of male and female characteristics or a person who is neither male nor female. Psychological androgyny refers to men and women who exhibit both masculine and feminine attributes. Androgyny Background and History
Child rearing has always been one of life’s major challenges and potential sources of self-fulfillment. In today’s world, divorce and unwed parenthood often alter parenting time and commitment for both parents, and attractive occupational options or excessive job requirements may affect motivation, time, or energy available for parenting. Connections between parental attitudes and child-rearing behaviors
Written language assessment plays a pivotal role in school psychology, offering a comprehensive understanding of students’ literacy development and facilitating tailored interventions. This article explores the multifaceted landscape of written language assessment within educational settings. Beginning with an examination of the theoretical foundations, it delves into emergent literacy theories, psycholinguistic models, and socio-cultural perspectives that
Prosecutorial misconduct is any courtroom behavior on the part of the prosecutor that violates trial rules and denies defendants their right to due process. Examples of misconduct may include making unfair or improper comments about the defendant, defense counsel, or a defense witness; suppressing, tampering with, or fabricating evidence; or making material misstatements regarding law
The Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI) is a 78-item self-report instrument designed to measure mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of their relationship with an individual child and their attitudes about being parents. Responses are made on a 4-point Likert scale, with high scores indicating parenting behaviors that could advantageously contribute to this relationship and low scores suggesting
This article explores the fundamental role of behavioral concepts in the field of school psychology, emphasizing their significance in understanding and addressing students’ behavior and learning. It delves into key concepts such as operant and classical conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and behavior modification, elucidating their practical applications in school settings. Additionally, the article examines evidence-based behavioral
Two general types of incidence surveys exist: the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) and the Crime Victim Surveys (CVS). The former requires people to indicate what actions they have taken to resolve family conflicts; the latter requires people to indicate by what crimes they have been victimized. The CVS find the rates of reporting wife assault
This article explores the concept of behavioral momentum within the context of school psychology, illuminating its theoretical foundations and practical applications. Behavioral momentum, originating in behavioral psychology, offers valuable insights into understanding and managing student behavior in educational settings. The article delves into how this theory informs interventions, strategies, and research aimed at promoting positive
Child custody evaluation (also known as evaluation of parental responsibility) refers to the use of the legal system to resolve questions of the distribution of decision-making responsibility and time with children, often but not always in the context of marital dissolution. This process exists to resolve disputes between two or more adults who have an
Classical conditioning, a fundamental concept in psychology, holds substantial relevance within the field of school psychology. This article explores the essential principles of classical conditioning, its applications in understanding and shaping student behavior and emotions, and the ethical considerations in its use. It provides practical insights into the implementation of classical conditioning techniques in classroom
Psychologists are often asked to evaluate and to provide testimony about parental capacity. The Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory, a measure originally designed to screen parents for child physical abuse risk, is frequently used as a measure of general parental capacity. The CAP Inventory is a 160-item, forced-choice (agree/disagree) self-report questionnaire. It contains a 77-item
In the field of school psychology, the concept of generalization plays a pivotal role in understanding and shaping student behavior and learning. This article explores the multifaceted aspects of generalization, from its theoretical foundations to its practical applications. Delving into the various types of generalization and the factors influencing its occurrence, it provides insights into
The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), developed by Mary Main and associates, has been identified as an effective, psychometrically sound instrument with which to measure an individual’s internal working model or state of mind regarding childhood attachment. The potentially detrimental influences of poor recall, social desirability, and naive lying associated with self-report measures of childhood attachment
This article delves into the concept of keystone behaviors in school psychology, examining their definition, theoretical underpinnings, identification, and intervention strategies. Highlighting the pivotal role of school psychologists and multidisciplinary teams, the article emphasizes the impact of keystone behaviors on student outcomes. It underscores the importance of research-based practices in enhancing the academic performance, social
The Ackerman-Schoendorf Parent Evaluation of Custody Test (ASPECT) was among the first forensic assessment instruments developed specifically for use in the area of parenting disputes. Its design requires the user to develop multiple data sources. The ASPECT laid the foundation for further search for objective, data-intensive assessment in this highly complex area of forensic work.
Operant conditioning is a foundational concept in the field of school psychology, with profound implications for understanding and modifying student behavior. This article provides an in-depth exploration of operant conditioning principles, their historical context, and their applications within educational settings. It delves into the fundamentals of operant conditioning, highlighting key components such as reinforcement, punishment
Religion has the ability to affect death penalty trials in numerous ways. The most studied include the effects of jurors’ religiosity and religious appeals used by lawyers during trial. Religion also affects judges’ decisions. Although the study of how religion affects legal decision making is still in its infancy, religion has the potential to affect
This article delves into the concept of schedules of reinforcement in the field of school psychology. Schedules of reinforcement are fundamental principles derived from behavioral psychology that hold profound significance for understanding and shaping student behavior in educational settings. This article explores the different types of schedules of reinforcement, their applications in school psychology, and
The issue of racial bias in the death penalty has long been a significant concern in the system of capital punishment. Many studies across the United States have found the race of the defendant (combined with the race of the victim) to be a salient predictor of juror decision making in capital cases, with Black
Behavioral consultation plays a pivotal role in the domain of school psychology, serving as a collaborative and evidence-based approach to understanding and addressing behavioral challenges in educational settings. This comprehensive article delves into the multifaceted world of behavioral consultation. It commences with an exploration of its historical foundations and theoretical underpinnings, shedding light on its
Mental retardation and the death penalty has been a controversial topic for decades. The U.S. Supreme Court has found, in Atkins v. Virginia (2002), that such executions are unconstitutional; this decision was partially based on the community’s evolving standards of decency. The legal system requires mental health professionals to determine whether a prisoner is mentally
Conjoint Behavioral Consultation (CBC) is a collaborative and evidence-based approach in school psychology that bridges the gap between school, home, and community to address students’ behavioral and academic challenges effectively. This article provides a comprehensive exploration of Conjoint Behavioral Consultation, beginning with its historical foundations and theoretical underpinnings. It delves into the practical aspects of
Mental illness and the death penalty have been a controversial topic for decades. The U.S. Supreme Court has found that such executions are unconstitutional. Although public opinion is somewhat mixed and understudied, national societies such as the American Psychological Association oppose executing the mentally ill. The legal system asks mental health professionals to determine a
Cross-cultural consultation in school psychology is a critical framework for addressing behavioral and academic challenges in increasingly diverse educational settings. This article explores the foundations, processes, techniques, and outcomes of cross-cultural consultation. Beginning with an examination of its historical development and theoretical underpinnings, it delves into the practical application of culturally sensitive assessment and intervention
Ecobehavioral consultation in school psychology represents an evolving framework for understanding and addressing behavioral issues in the complex and interconnected environments of educational settings. This article explores the foundations, processes, techniques, outcomes, and impacts of ecobehavioral consultation. It highlights the significance of ecological assessments, systems thinking, and collaborative problem-solving in addressing student behavior and academic
This article explores the critical role of mental health consultation within the field of school psychology. It delves into the historical foundations, theoretical underpinnings, and the process of conducting mental health consultation in educational settings. Highlighting the impact of mental health consultation on students’ well-being, academic success, and school climate, the article emphasizes the need
This article explores the multifaceted role of social class in school psychology, shedding light on its profound impact on educational outcomes and the well-being of students. It delves into the historical context of class in education, discusses disparities in academic achievement associated with different socioeconomic backgrounds, and addresses the intersection of class with other demographic
The article on ethnicity in school psychology examines the pivotal role of ethnicity in the field of school psychology, emphasizing its significance in the context of education and the understanding of demographic variables. It delves into the historical, educational, and psychological dimensions of ethnicity, discussing how it shapes students’ academic experiences and achievement. Additionally, the
This article on gender in school psychology delves into the multifaceted intersection of gender dynamics with education, emphasizing the significance of understanding how gender influences students’ experiences and outcomes in educational settings. It explores the historical context, disparities, and academic implications associated with gender, addressing the pivotal role of school psychologists in promoting gender equity
The article on race in school psychology delves into the intricate dynamics of race and its profound impact on the field of school psychology. It explores how racial factors intersect with other demographic variables to shape students’ educational experiences and outcomes. This comprehensive discussion highlights the pivotal role of school psychologists in addressing racial disparities
This article provides a comprehensive exploration of the multifaceted role of socioeconomic status (SES) in the field of school psychology. SES, one of the critical demographic variables, significantly impacts students’ educational experiences, outcomes, and access to resources. This article delves into the historical context of SES in education, the disparities it engenders, and the role
This article explores the critical role of school psychologists in understanding and addressing developmental milestones across the lifespan of students. Beginning with early childhood, it examines cognitive, social, emotional, and physical milestones, delving into the challenges and opportunities faced by school psychologists in supporting these formative years. Moving into elementary and middle school, the article
Interrogation rooms remain some of the most secretive locations in the United States legal system. Police undertake interrogation to discover the truth about a crime. Police, along with society at large, want guilty people to confess and innocent people to resist. The stakes are particularly high because a confession is even more powerful than eyewitness
Egocentrism, a fundamental concept in the field of psychology, is characterized by the cognitive and emotional tendency to view the world primarily from one’s own perspective, often at the expense of considering the viewpoints of others. This article delves into the multifaceted nature of egocentrism, tracing its historical roots and highlighting its significance in psychological
The interrogation of those suspected of wrongdoing, although of great importance to society, has not been researched extensively compared with other crucial topics in psychology and law. Effective interrogation (and therefore the prosecution and possible conviction) of guilty persons is of obvious and high relevance to police psychology and forensic psychology as is the successful interviewing
Police selection is a process by which police agencies decide on which applicants are suitable for law enforcement training. The application of psychology to the selection of police officers has long been a part of the process, usually in the form of a psychological evaluation performed by a licensed clinical psychologist. The evaluation typically involves
Criminal cases often hinge on the testimony of eyewitnesses; sometimes those eyewitnesses are police officers. Police eyewitnesses perform the same tasks as civilian eyewitnesses: They provide descriptions to police officers during interviews, attempt to identify perpetrators from lineups, and provide testimony during court trials. Laboratory research, along with evidence from actual court cases, has shown
A fitness-for-duty evaluation (FFDE) is just what the term suggests, an evaluation of an individual’s fitness to do his or her job. In high-risk occupations, such as the police and public safety, the need for psychological suitability and fitness is generally established by statute or case law. In fact, some courts have held that agencies
A false confession is a narrative admission to a crime that is made, orally or in writing, by an innocent person. Research shows that innocent people may confess in different ways and for different reasons—resulting in three types of false confessions: voluntary, compliant, and internalized. From an empirical perspective, this entry addresses the evolution of
Therapeutic jurisprudence (TJ) is an interdisciplinary approach to the study and practice of law and the role of legal actors. It aims to focus on the often underappreciated aspect of the law and legal actors’ role in producing therapeutic or antitherapeutic consequences. It is a normative framework that advocates the use of the social sciences
A number of different methods are used to treat substance abuse. The most common method often used by treatment facilities is 12-step counseling, although little is known about its effectiveness. Treatment modalities include inpatient, day treatment, and outpatient care, usually followed by aftercare. Twelve Step Facilitation Therapy has been scientifically validated but is rarely adopted
Psychiatric advance directives (PADs) allow competent persons to document advance instructions for their future mental health treatment or designate a health care agent to make decisions for them in the event of an incapacitating psychiatric crisis. PADs may enhance patient self-determination, improve therapeutic alliance, and prevent psychiatric crises; however, there are a number of legal
Proxy decision making (also known as substituted judgment) refers to the use of the legal system to replace one person’s judgment with that of another. This process exists to protect individuals from exploitation while allowing them to retain as much decision-making latitude as possible. Society’s interests are served by preventing persons with mental disabilities from
Patients who are subjected to involuntary hospitalization in a psychiatric facility or who accept voluntary admission retain certain rights within the institution. Patients hospitalized because of mental illness do not shed their rights at the hospital door. Although they may not leave the hospital, they retain their rights to the fullest extent consistent with their
Mental health courts are specialty criminal courts with a separate docket to deal with mentally ill persons, who are disproportionately arrested and incarcerated. Established by local court and criminal justice officials who recognized that traditional prosecution and punishment were not effective deterrents with this population, these courts divert mentally ill defendants into community treatment with
Legal guardianship is the process by which one individual (a legal guardian) is appointed by a court to care for the personal and property interests of another individual (a ward) in situations where the latter is unable to function independently. Guardians are appointed to represent children, developmentally disabled and mentally ill adults, and the elderly
Involuntary outpatient commitment is a form of civil commitment in which a court orders an individual to receive treatment and related services in a community setting. Nearly all states in the United States permit outpatient civil commitment, though the manner in which it occurs varies among the states. It is also used in other countries.
As recently as the mid-20th century, the U.S. public mental health system consisted largely of the state hospitals. These hospitals, originally constructed for the humane asylum and “moral treatment” of those deemed mentally ill, had evolved into overcrowded, understaffed, and inadequate responses to the general welfare burden of society. Since that time, there have been
This paper discusses the involuntary administration of psychotropic medication, which continues to be one of the most controversial issues in mental health law. Whether mental patients in hospital, the community, jail, prison, or the judicial process may refuse psychotropic medication that the government would like to administer raises complex legal, clinical, moral, and social issues.
As the range of options for extending life and for hastening death continues to expand, so the range of issues faced by clinical evaluators also has grown. Among the most complex are those surrounding requests for assisted suicide, euthanasia, or the withdrawal or refusal of life-sustaining interventions. The availability of some of these alternatives varies
Informed consent practices have evolved over time after instances were documented in which research participants were not treated fairly or respectfully, were not informed, or were subjected to unnecessary harm. Current federal regulations support the ethical treatment of persons in the research setting in that the participation is voluntary, that the risks outweigh the benefits
Treating people with a mental disorder without their consent always has been the defining human rights issue in mental health law. For centuries, unwanted treatment took place in a closed institution—a mental hospital. What has changed is that in recent years the locus of involuntary treatment has shifted from the closed institution to the open
The capacity to consent to treatment, also known as treatment consent capacity (TCC) and medical decisionmaking capacity, is a civil legal capacity with important ethical, legal, and functional aspects. TCC is a fundamental aspect of personal autonomy and self-determination and refers to a person’s cognitive and emotional capacity to consent to medical treatment. TCC involves
Psychologists may become involved with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) through consultations with employers and workers or as an expert witness in litigation involving the act. In all these roles, the psychologist must gain an understanding of the many definitions in the act and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) regulations mandated by it.
Deviance Definition Deviance is a broad term meant to signify behavior that violates social norms. The origins and functions of deviant behavior have long been of interest in the social sciences, with early sociological theories influencing the psychology theories that followed. Sociological Theories of Deviance Structural Functionalism One broad sociological approach to the study of
Juvenile transfer to adult court is the process by which some youths who are viewed by juvenile court judges as inappropriate for the juvenile justice system are transferred to adult court. The decisions to transfer a youth to adult court are typically based on concerns about public safety balanced against considerations of youth development. The
Diffusion of responsibility is a concept that has been employed in several fruitful ways in psychology. First, consider a collection of persons, strangers, that faces an unexpected situation, such as that of a person who is suddenly in distress. Intuitively it is clear that each member of the collection of persons feels less responsibility to
Policymakers, social workers, and researchers have long been reflecting on how to respond to youth crime. In recent years, the concern that traditional approaches stemming from retributive and rehabilitative models of justice may no longer be viable responses to criminal acts has increased the interest in alternative measures and approaches originated within the restorative justice
Discontinuity Effect Definition The interindividual-intergroup discontinuity effect is the tendency in some settings for relations between groups to be more competitive, or less cooperative, than relations between individuals. Why is this effect referred to as a discontinuity rather than just as a difference? Unpublished research has demonstrated that variation in the number of people in
The Risk-Sophistication-Treatment Inventory (RSTI) is a semistructured interview and rating scale that is designed to help clinicians assess Risk for Dangerousness, Sophistication-Maturity, and Treatment Amenability as well as treatment needs. The RSTI demonstrates reliability and validity and can assist mental health professionals with the assessment and development of treatment plans for juveniles in forensic settings.
Distributive Justice Definition Distributive justice refers to the perceived fairness of one’s outcomes. When a reward is allocated or a decision is made, people often make a judgment whether or not the outcome was fair. This judgment is referred to as a distributive justice judgment because it has traditionally been an assessment of how resources
Recently, researchers and juvenile justice administrators have recognized that rates of mental health disorders are remarkably high among adolescent offenders. This finding carries significant implications for policy and practice. Youth justice facilities are mandated to provide necessary mental health treatment to detained adolescent offenders with mental health needs. Furthermore, mental disorders may interfere with youths’
In his or her social world, a person continually encounters collections of individuals in various social contexts. Sometimes a person perceives these other people to be a meaningful group; other times, as a mere aggregate of persons. What determines when a person sees other people as meaningful groups, and what are the consequences of perceiving
The Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument-Version 2 (MAYSI-2) is a brief, self-report screening tool designed to identify youths with special mental health needs in the juvenile justice system. It is not a diagnostic tool. Instead, it identifies emergent risks of youths in need of a comprehensive psychological assessment. The developers of the MAYSI-2 designed it for
Group Cohesion Definition Group cohesion is a social process that characterizes groups whose members interact with each other and refers to the forces that push group members closer together. A lot of work these days is accomplished in groups. Most people have had both good and bad experiences from participating in such group work. One
Legal socialization is the process of developing attitudes toward rules, laws, and the legal system. Legal socialization research studies this process and also examines why individuals choose to obey or disobey the law. In fact, the first approaches to studies of attitudes toward the law appear in the legal socialization literature. Factors that affect how
In everyday life, many decisions are made by groups. Some of these group decisions are relatively inconsequential; however, others serve highly critical functions, such as those made by juries, medical teams, political committees, and safety advisory boards. Therefore, much research has been carried out on the determinants and dynamics of group decision making. The scholarly
Despite disagreement about its exact contours, most conceptualizations of psychopathic personality disorder emphasize traits of emotional detachment, including callousness, failure to form close emotional bonds, low anxiety proneness, remorselessness, and deceitfulness. Nevertheless, most measures of psychopathy go beyond these interpersonal and affective features to assess repeated involvement in antisocial behavior, which many scholars view as
Group Dynamics Definition Group dynamics are the influential actions, processes, and changes that take place in groups. Individuals often seek personal objectives independently of others, but across a wide range of settings and situations, they join with others in groups. The processes that take place within these groups—such as pressures to conform, the development of
Broadly defined, a risk factor for juvenile offending is any experience, circumstance, or personal characteristic that increases the probability that a given youth will commit a legal transgression. No single risk factor causes offending; many youths who have been exposed to various risk factors never commit a crime. Rather, juvenile offending typically emerges as a
Group Identity Definition Group identity refers to a person’s sense of belonging to a particular group. At its core, the concept describes social influence within a group. This influence may be based on some social category or on interpersonal interaction among group members. On one hand, if we consider the case of athletic teams, a
Prior to interrogating a suspect, police officers must inform individuals of their legal rights. Mental health professionals are frequently called on to evaluate the extent to which criminal suspects have understood their legal arrest rights and made valid decisions with respect to waiving those rights. For individuals to knowingly, intelligently, and voluntarily waive their rights
Task performance or the outcome of some behavioral or intellectual goal is a key function of many groups. Task-performing groups include various decision-making groups, sports teams, and work teams. One would expect groups to benefit from their multiple and potentially complementary skills. It is true that the more able or skilled the group or team
Although the early juvenile justice system did not require that adolescent defendants be able to understand and participate in their legal proceedings, courts have increasingly required that adolescent defendants, like adult criminal defendants, be competent to proceed to adjudication (competent to stand trial). This has raised a unique set of challenges for the courts and
Group Polarization Definition Group polarization occurs when discussion leads a group to adopt attitudes or actions that are more extreme than the initial attitudes or actions of the individual group members. Note that group polarization can happen in the direction of either riskiness (risky shift) or conservativeness. One example is the way in which unruly
Under Anglo-American law, the right of testation refers to the freedom to choose how one’s property and other possessions will be disposed of following one’s death. For a will to be valid, the testator (the person making the will) must have testamentary capacity (TC) at the time that the will is executed. TC is thus
Groupthink Definition Groupthink refers to decision-making groups’ extreme concurrence seeking (conformity) that is hypothesized to result in highly defective judgments and outcomes. According to Irving Janis, the inventor of the groupthink concept, decision-making groups are most likely to experience groupthink when they operate under the following conditions: maintain high cohesion, insulate themselves from experts, perform
Personal injury and emotional distress claims are civil court matters in which psychologists may become involved in several ways. A claim of psychological injury or emotional distress resulting from the intentional or reckless actions of another sets in motion the collection of data to buttress or refute the claim. Treatment providers, whose interventions occur in
Evidence of conflict and discrimination between groups is all around, which is not to say that this is inevitable, as many groups coexist peacefully most of the time. Ingroup bias refers to a form of favoritism toward one’s own group or derogation of another group. Many theories of intergroup relations in social psychology try to
Parens patriae translates from the Latin as “father of the people” and is the legal principle that allows the state to intercede on behalf of juveniles, those who are mentally ill, and others who are unable to protect themselves. The parens patriae doctrine was first enunciated in English common law and referred to the king
Intergroup Anxiety Definition People often feel uncomfortable when interacting with others who belong to a different social group than they do. Intergroup anxiety is the term used to describe this discomfort. When interacting with members of a different social group (called an outgroup), people often anticipate a variety of negative outcomes, such as being taken
According to John Bowlby, the propensity to establish intimate connections to particular individuals is a basic component of human nature; it is present before birth and continues through adult life into old age. The intimate connections that people establish are an important source of meaning in their lives, and the level and quality of intimacy
Forensic assessments must evaluate systematically the accuracy and forthrightness of individuals referred for evaluation of psycholegal issues. Among different response styles that should be considered, malingering is a cornerstone issue for forensic consultations. Malingering is defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth edition; DSM-IV) of the American Psychiatric Association as a
Intergroup Emotions Definition Intergroup emotions refer to the specific emotional reactions that people feel toward a social group and its members. Intergroup emotions are closely related to the concept of prejudice. Both intergroup emotions and prejudice involve individuals’ feelings about social groups to which they do not belong; however, these two terms differ in the
Ionizing radiation in sufficient dosage has been known to disrupt prenatal development almost since the discovery of X-rays. Case reports of birth defects in children prenatally irradiated appeared in medical journals as early as 1929. The effects of high dose prenatal ionizing radiation are smaller stature, microcephaly, eye malformations, mental retardation, and lowered IQ test
Financial capacity (FC) is a medical-legal construct that represents the ability to independently manage one’s financial affairs in a manner consistent with personal self-interest. FC thus involves not only performance skills (e.g., accurately counting coins/currency, completing a check register, paying bills) but also the judgment skills that optimize financial self-interest. From a legal standpoint, FC
Social psychological research on intergroup relations concerns the perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors humans express when they think of themselves and others as members of social groups. All humans belong to many different types of social groups, ranging from smaller groupings of people (such as one’s circles of friends) to larger social categories (such as gender
IQ tests provide us with a quantitative measure of intelligence, known as the Intelligence Quotient (IQ for short). This type of testing has a long and rich history, beginning in Europe over a century ago. Though we still use variations of many of these early tests today, there is much controversy over measuring intelligence in
Psychopathic personality disorder comprises a distinct collection of deviant affective, interpersonal, and behavioral features. Results of psychopathy testing can sway life-altering decisions for the examinee, including granting of parole, outcome in sexually violent predator civil commitment trials, gaining access to treatment, and even being sentenced to death. Because the disorder is strongly predictive of violent
People are obsessed with leaders. People gossip about the boss; airport bookshops bulge with leadership books; current affairs analyzes the actions of leaders; and much of organizational science is about leadership. This is not surprising. Leaders have enormous influence over their followers—leaders make decisions for their followers and shape the course of their lives and
In the name of Allah, most benevolent, ever-merciful. ALL PRAISE BE to Allah, Lord of all the worlds, Most beneficent, ever-merciful, King of the Day of Judgment. Y ou alone we worship, and to You Alone turn for help. Guide us to the path that is straight, The path of those You have blessed, Not
Disparate treatment and disparate impact cases involve actions on the part of an employer that a plaintiff worker claims are based on the worker’s race, gender, color, national origin, religion, disability, or age. Determining damages in these cases should follow the same practices as those used in tort, sexual harassment, or ADA (Americans with Disabilities
Minimal Group Paradigm Definition The minimal group paradigm is a procedure that researchers use to create new social groups in the laboratory. The goal is to categorize individuals into groups based on minimal criteria that are relatively trivial or arbitrary. For example, the classic procedure involves asking participants to rate paintings made by two artists
Child custody issues can arise for a number of reasons, including parental death, unmarried motherhood, and the severance of parental rights by the state because of abuse or neglect. Today, however, child custody issues arise primarily as a result of divorce. When parents divorce, decisions must be made regarding who has the present and future
Disability insurance and workers’ compensation both concern illness or injury in the context of work. These terms are sometimes (erroneously) used interchangeably, but in actuality they refer to very different concepts. Disability insurance provides benefits to an eligible claimant whose ability to work is compromised by injury or illness. The cause of the injury or
Part of understanding how groups operate is understanding how the individual within the group looks at the group he or she belongs to. Once dividing the larger group into subgroups, one usually becomes more attached to one subgroup and sees the people in other groups as less distinct from one another. For example, at a
The term Judaism generally connotes the religion practiced by the Jewish people. Many, however, ascribe to it a much broader definition, most accurately as “a way of life” encompassing the expressed heritage of wisdom and creativity of the Jewish people, and subsuming such modes of expression as (nonsacred) literature, music, and graphic art. Here we
The weapon focus effect is the tendency for witnesses who observe an armed criminal to direct their attention toward the weapon so that they fail to encode and remember information about the perpetrator’s physical appearance as accurately as they would have if no weapon had been visible. This effect can have important consequences for the
Outgroup Homogeneity Definition Outgroup homogeneity is the tendency for members of a group to see themselves as more diverse and heterogeneous than they are seen by an outgroup. Thus, for example, whereas Italians see themselves as quite diverse and different from one another, Americans view Italians as more similar to each other, or more alike.
Juvenile delinquency has traditionally been defined as behavior exhibited by children and adolescents that has legal ramifications, such as engaging in illegal activity (statutory and criminal). Juvenile delinquents include youth who have contact with law enforcement and those who are adjudicated through juvenile court for a crime. These are behaviors that violate the rules of
Voice recognition, or “earwitness” identification, has not received the amount of research or public interest that eyewitness identification has received in recent years. A 1983 survey of British legal cases, however, found more than 180 cases at that time in which voice identifications were used as evidence. But a growing body of research suggests that
Power affects almost all facets of social life, from the food people eat to how long they live. Power concerns are evident in most kinds of relationships, including intimate bonds, parent-child relationships, sibling relations, and relations between group members. This brief entry examines what social psychology has learned with respect to three questions concerning power:
The first kibbutz, a cooperative communal farming settlement called Degonia, was established in 1909 near the Sea of Galilee. It was followed in the 1920s by a number of variations on the basic model, and today there are more than 200 kibbutzim featuring a host of political and organizational characteristics and producing an array of
Verbal overshadowing (VO) refers to situations in which describing a nonverbal experience, such as the appearance of a face, impairs subsequent recognition. In the original demonstration of VO, participants viewed a video of a robbery with a salient perpetrator and were later asked to recognize the perpetrator in a photographic lineup, including seven similar distractors.
Procedural justice is the study of people’s subjective evaluations of the justice of decision making of conflict resolution procedures—whether they are fair or unfair, ethical or unethical, and otherwise accord with people’s standards of fair processes for interaction and decision making. Procedural justice is usually distinguished from subjective assessments of the fairness of outcomes (distributive
Whether or not a child is “ready” for school has been a topic of considerable debate. In the past, maturational views of readiness, which advocate school entry only for those children deemed to be developmentally ready, dominated ideas about school readiness. According to this view, readiness for school is determined by children’s level of biological development.
Unconscious transference is a memory error that occurs when an eyewitness to a crime misidentifies a familiar but innocent person from a police lineup. Historically, the use of the term unconscious refers to the idea that the witness who misidentifies the familiar foil (an innocent person in a police lineup) has no conscious recollection of
Ringelmann Effect Definition The Ringelmann effect refers to individuals expending less individual effort on a task when working as part of a group than when working alone. Background and History of the Ringelmann Effect Max Ringelmann was a French agricultural engineer who was interested in examining various aspects related to agricultural efficiency. He was primarily
The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction was founded as a not-for-profit corporation in 1947 by pioneering sex researcher Alfred C. Kinsey. The Kinsey Institute is a research institute affiliated with Indiana University. The Kinsey Institute’s mission is to promote interdisciplinary research and scholarship in the fields of human sexuality, gender, and
The ability to accurately recognize others is important to everyone, particularly because important social, personal, physical, and economic resources are uniquely associated with individual persons. The recognition training that most people experience comes with everyday social interaction, containing the incentives within their social environment. The ecology of personal recognition and the social-cognitive processes through which
Rumors Definition Rumors are unverified information statements that people circulate to make sense of an unclear situation or to deal with a possible threat. Rumors are about issues or situations of topical interest. Rumors are like news except that news is accompanied by solid evidence; rumor is not. A classic example: “I heard that our
Klinefelter’s syndrome is a male sex chromosome disorder affecting 1 in 500 males across all ethnic groups. Men with Klinefelter’s syndrome possess an additional X chromosome, resulting in a 47,XXY genotype. The additional X chromosome comes from sporadic errors during sperm or egg formation. In an individual with Klinefelter’s syndrome, the extra X chromosome forms
Stress exerts complex effects on eyewitness memory. On the whole, it has a negative effect, but this can be quite variable depending on the level of stress and the aspect of the witnessed event that one is trying to remember. Stress operates similarly in affecting person recognition (i.e., lineup performance) and recall of event details.
Social Compensation Definition Social compensation refers to the phenomenon that individuals increase their effort on a collective task (compared with how hard they try when working individually) to compensate for the anticipated poor performance of other group members. People are more likely to compensate when they think their coworkers are not going to perform well
Lawrence Kohlberg developed a landmark theory on moral development that has generated much research, application, and controversy in many fields. Kohlberg was born in Bronxville, New York, to a wealthy family and was educated in private schools. Facing the immorality of the Holocaust as a young man, he helped smuggle Jewish refugees from Europe. He
The source monitoring (SM) framework is an evolving set of ideas developed by Marcia Johnson and her collaborators regarding the cognitive processes by which individuals attribute mental events (thoughts, images, feelings) to particular origins (e.g., memory, perception, creativity, etc.). Most of the research motivated by the SM framework has had to do with how people
Social Dominance Orientation Definition Social dominance orientation (SDO) is a measure of an individual’s support for group-based hierarchies. It reflects a person’s attitudes toward hierarchies in general, as well as beliefs about whether one’s own group should dominate other groups. People with high SDO believe that society should be structured in terms of inequality, with
The first born of triplets in Zurich, Switzerland, on July 8, 1926, Elisabeth Kübler-Ross became a psychiatrist, best known for her pioneering work in the care of dying patients. Her pathway to medicine was not without obstacles. Her father wanted her to join him in his business as a secretary, and when she refused, he
Simultaneous and sequential presentation refers to two styles of presenting a police lineup to witnesses of a crime. Research shows that patterns in identification decisions differ between these presentation styles. This entry reviews the components of each presentation method and the advantages and disadvantages of their use and mentions some unresolved issues. Some crimes involve
Social Justice Orientation Definition When, why, and how do people decide that something is fair or unfair? For the past half-century, social justice has been an active area of study for social psychologists. Social justice researchers st udy both individuals and groups, trying to understand how people make justice decisions and what they perceive and
Labor is defined as contractions that change the uterine cervix, which results eventually in the delivery of the fetus. Labor is considered one of the most intense experiences of pain widely encountered. The cause of pain might be explained by hypoxia of the contracted uterine muscle (as in myocardial infarction), stretching of the cervix during
Showups are an identification technique in which a single individual, the suspect, is presented in a one-on-one confrontation with the victim or other witness of a crime. The witness is asked to indicate whether the suspect is or is not the perpetrator. Showup identifications are very common and even favored by the police as an
Social Loafing Definition Social loafing refers to a decline in motivation and effort found when people combine their efforts to form a group product. People tend to generate less output or to contribute less effort when working on a task collectively where contributions are combined than when working individually. The consequence is that people are
The language acquisition device (LAD) was proposed by Noam Chomsky to explain how children, when exposed to any human language, are able to learn it within only a few years following birth. Chomsky argued that all humans are born with the knowledge of what makes a human language. Included in this innate knowledge must be
Retention interval refers to the amount of time that elapses between the end of a witness’s encounter with a perpetrator and any subsequent testing of the witness’s memory for that encounter. Testing of a witness’s memory for a perpetrator’s identity is obviously important whenever the prosecution seeks to prove that the perpetrator and the defendant
Subtyping Definition Subtyping refers to a process whereby people come to view individuals who don’t fit a stereotype as exceptions or as poor members of a group. The concept is important because it explains why people often do not change their stereotypes in the face of disconfirming information. Subtyping involves psychologically fencing off deviant group
The period of later adulthood, defined here as ages 60 through 75 years, is characterized by physical, psychological, and social changes, including both gains and losses. We will examine the multifaceted aspects of successful versus usual versus pathological aging. In examining the changes that occur in later life, researchers often distinguish between primary aging and
An important issue for the police and courts is the extent to which an eyewitness’s decision about a lineup can be trusted as accurate. Consequently, psychologists have searched for variables associated with the witness’s decision that help distinguish correct from incorrect decisions. One such variable is response latency (or response speed). Response latency is measured
System Justification Definition System justification refers to a social psychological propensity to defend and bolster the status quo, that is, to see it as good, fair, legitimate, and desirable. A consequence of this tendency is that existing social, economic, and political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives to the status quo are disparaged. System
Lead has been used by mankind for more than 6,000 years because of its resistance to corrosion, its low melting point, and, ironically, sometimes for its sweet taste. Therefore, it is one the most studied environmental toxins, and its toxicity has been known for more than 2,500 years. The major exogenous sources and associated pathways
While one cannot deny that repressed and recovered memories have had an effect on individuals, their families, and our legal system, little credible evidence exists for massive repression. Moreover, most claims of repression and recovered memories have alternative explanations such as ordinary forgetting or exposure to suggestive situations. This entry examines issues relating to claims
Territoriality Definition Territoriality is a pattern of attitudes and behavior held by a person or group that is based on perceived, attempted, or actual control of a physical space, object, or idea, which may involve habitual occupation, defense, personalization, and marking of the territory. Marking means placing an object or substance in a space to
Learned helplessness is a behavior pattern involving a maladaptive response characterized by avoidance of challenges, negative affect, and the collapse of problem-solving strategies when obstacles arise. Three components are necessary for learned helplessness to be present: contingency, cognition, and behavior. Contingency is the idea that there is an identifiable relation between one’s actions and the
Token Effects Definition A token is the only person of his or her category, or one of very few persons, in an otherwise homogeneous group. A sole female in a group of males is an example of a token individual, as is the only Latino in a group of Caucasians. Being numerically distinctive produces effects
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. As the individual interacts with the environment, certain events promote behavior. In some cases, the outcomes produced by those responses inform the individual about likely consequences for behavior in future situations. Behaviors include a wide array of events, from basic physical processes to complex
Betrayal Definition Betrayal refers to situations in which individuals (victims) believe that a relationship partner (a perpetrator) has harmed them by knowingly violating a norm governing their relationship. In this context, norms refer to expectations about how the relationship partners should treat one another. Typical betrayals might involve witnessing a romantic partner flirt with somebody
Learning disability is a general term that describes specific kinds of learning problems. It is thought to be a neurological or processing disorder that affects the brain’s ability to receive, process, store, and respond to information. It can cause a person to have difficulty learning and using certain skills despite having at least average intelligence.
Close Relationships Definition Why are we attracted to some people? How do people know they are in good relationships? Why do people fall in love? Does good communication really produce successful relationships? Are men really from Mars and women from Venus? These are just some of the intriguing questions that social psychologists attempt to answer.
A lesbian is a woman or girl who is sexually or romantically attracted to females, or who engages in same-sex behavior or relationships. The word lesbian was coined in the 17th century based on the Greek island of Lesbos, where the female poet Sappho wrote erotic poetry about love between women in the 7th century
Commitment Definition Commitment represents the motivation to stay in a relationship and to work at it. It is not surprising that we stay in relationships while they are highly satisfying, but why stay in a relationship that has not been satisfying lately? People may choose to persevere when things get difficult because they have invested
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome is an X-linked recessive inborn error of purine metabolism caused by absence of, or deficiency in, hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HPRT). HPRT metabolizes hypoxanthine and guanine to uric acid. First described in two brothers by Lesch and Nyhan in 1964, the disorder is fortunately rare, occurring in less than 1 in 200,000 births. It
Communal Relationships Definition Communal relationships are those where an individual assumes responsibility for the welfare of his or her partner. In these relationships, when the partner has a specific need, wants support in striving toward a goal, would enjoy being included in an activity, or simply could use the reassurance of care, the other partner
The acquisition of reading and writing skills— especially reading—always an important element in American education, has received growing attention in recent years, as exemplified by the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act enacted by Congress in 2001 and signed by President Bush in 2002. The legislation begins with a concentration on reading and mathematics achievement
Companionate Love Definition Companionate love refers to a variety of love that is durable, fairly slow to develop, and characterized by interdependence and feelings of affection, intimacy, and commitment. Companionate love is also known as affectionate love, friendship-based love, or attachment. Because it requires time to develop fully, this kind of love is often seen
Born in Somerset, England, John Locke was a noted philosopher and academician, political adviser, and physician. Educated as a child at the Westminster School, Locke endured an educational regimen that stressed strict adherence to rules, severe punishments, and rote memorization. Undoubtedly, Locke’s dissatisfaction with his education at Westminster was responsible, to a significant extent, for
Complementarity Definition Do birds of a feather flock together? Do opposites attract? These questions have been examined extensively within the domain of attraction, but less emphasis has been placed on the similarity versus complementarity in ongoing relationships. Complementarity means that partners are different in ways that enable them to fit or work together well. Many
Locus of control (LOC) is a term used to refer to individual perceptions regarding personal control, particularly with regard to control over important outcomes. For example, have you ever tried to convince someone to vote, emphasizing the impact his or her vote could have in an election? Have you ever known someone who did not
Dependence Regulation Definition Dependence regulation refers to people’s tendency to adjust how close they allow themselves to be to a significant other to match the perceived risks of rejection. People risk greater closeness when they are more confident that their relationship partner accepts them and regards them positively (and the risk of rejection is perceived
Longitudinal research refers to research that investigates events or phenomena over an extended period of time. Longitudinal research studies can be as brief as 1 or 2 years, for example, when evaluating the effects of a particular learning strategy, technique, or treatment. They can also run over several decades, as when examining changes in adult
Empathic Accuracy Definition Empathic accuracy refers to the degree to which people can accurately infer the specific content of other people’s thoughts and feelings. The ability to accurately read other people’s thoughts and feelings (everyday mind reading) is a fundamental skill that affects people’s adjustment in many different aspects of their lives. For example, one
Long-term memory encompasses all learning or knowledge that is stored in the mind for longer than a few seconds or minutes. It encompasses all forms of learning and memory: memory for past events, facts, motor skills, perceptual skills, and conditioning. Long-term memory interacts with short-term memory (also called working memory). Short-term memory consists of information
The defining characteristic of an exchange relationship is that benefits are given with the expectation of receiving a comparable benefit in return or in repayment for a comparable benefit received in the past. When exchange rules are followed appropriately, each relationship member considers the exchange to be fair. Relationships between customers and storeowners often exemplify
The United States is unsurpassed in its ability to rescue the very smallest infants; infants who weigh only 750 g at birth are now surviving. However, these rescue efforts are often associated with significant long-term health and developmental problems among survivors. In 1950, the World Health Organization adopted the figure of less than 2,500 g
Forgiveness Definition Forgiveness refers to the act of decreasing negative feelings toward someone who has hurt or offended the self. Sometimes forgiveness entails replacing negative feelings with positive feelings. However, many researchers believe that the reduction of negative emotions is sufficient. Scholarly definitions of forgiveness often do not align with definitions held by the lay
Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) is a grassroots organization with more than 2 million members and local chapters throughout the United States, Canada, Guam, and Puerto Rico. It is estimated that since MADD’s inception in 1980, alcohol-related traffic fatalities have declined 43%. In 1980, 55% (28,100) of the nation’s 51,091 traffic deaths were alcohol related.
Curiosity about gossip seems to center on one question: What “counts” as gossip? Talking about who in Hollywood is heading to the altar? Discussing the odd behavior of a friend at a party? Criticizing a friend’s choice of attire? Taking bets on how long a common friend’s latest love affair will last? Confiding in a
Magical thinking involves the belief that one’s ideas, thoughts, actions, words, or use of symbols can influence the course of events in the material world. Magical thinking presumes a causal link between one’s inner, personal experience and the external physical world. Examples include beliefs that the movement of the sun, moon, and wind or the
Interpersonal Cognition Definition Interpersonal cognition is the set of mental processes by which people think about their interactions and relationships with others. Research in the area of interpersonal cognition aims to understand how people perceive the many layers of information present in social interactions and how they process this information and store it in memory.
In most normal, healthy children, the genetic potential is helped toward fulfillment by healthful, invigorating environmental conditions. The quality of children’s nutrition and health care strongly influences their development and the general quality of life they experience. Unfortunately, a majority of children in the world, and many of the children in the United States, receive
Intimacy Definition Per social psychologists, intimacy refers to a process of interaction in which social partners, as a result of sharing personal and private thoughts and feelings, come to feel understood, appreciated, and cared for by each other. This definition is deliberately narrower than the many common language usages of this term. In everyday language
Although the marijuana, or cannabis, plant first appears in human history approximately 10,000 years ago, there is limited research that tells us about its role in human development. Indeed, this plant with hundreds of active chemicals when smoked remains a mystery to many, although with over hundreds of millions of people in the world having
Intimate Partner Violence Definition Intimate partner violence refers to the intentional use of aggressive behaviors that are enacted with the immediate goal of causing physical pain to an intimate partner. If the pain is caused accidentally (e.g., by inadvertently shutting a door on the partner’s fingers), it does not qualify as intimate partner violence. This
Marital equity refers to the degree of balance of authority, power, or influence between spouses. There are multiple domains related to marital power, including, for example, each partner’s education background and economic contribution; each spouse’s ability to use communication skills to influence the other partner; and how much each partner has a say in decision
Love Definition Love is often thought of as an intense and positive emotion that can be experienced for a variety of close others, including a romantic partner or spouse, close friends, children, parents, and other relatives. For more than three decades, social psychologists and other social scientists have been studying love. The type of love
Marriage As An Institution The first recorded history of marriage as an institution was gleaned from the ancient civilizations. In “civilized” societies, women were considered property owned by men, first by their fathers and then by their husbands. Early Romans and Greeks often gave women to men as prizes for some heroic deed. Wives had
Marital Satisfaction Definition Marital satisfaction is a mental state that reflects the perceived benefits and costs of marriage to a particular person. The more costs a marriage partner inflicts on a person, the less satisfied one generally is with the marriage and with the marriage partner. Similarly, the greater the perceived benefits are, the more
Abraham Maslow pioneered and led the humanistic psychology movement. He was born in 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. The oldest of seven children from parents who immigrated to the United States from Russia, Maslow was quoted as describing his childhood as miserable and his family as unhappy and unloving. For Maslow, study and education provided
Matching Hypothesis Definition The matching hypothesis refers to the proposition that people are attracted to and form relationships with individuals who resemble them on a variety of attributes, including demographic characteristics (e.g., age, ethnicity, and education level), personality traits, attitudes and values, and even physical attributes (e.g., attractiveness). Background and Importance of Matching Hypothesis Theorists
In everyday language, loneliness describes feeling disconnected from important others by virtue of physical separation or emotional conflict. In psychology, loneliness is defined as having an inadequate or less satisfying network of friends and family than is desired. Loneliness and aloneness are distinct; solitude is enjoyed when one wants to be alone, whereas loneliness can
Mimicry Definition Mimicry refers to the unconscious and unintentional imitation of other people’s accents, speech patterns, postures, gestures, mannerisms, moods, and emotions. Examples of mimicry include picking up regional accents or expressions when on vacation, or shaking one’s leg upon observing another person’s leg shaking. Mimicry Background In the 1970s and 1980s, research on mimicry
Self-Presentation Definition Self-presentation refers to how people attempt to present themselves to control or shape how others (called the audience) view them. It involves expressing oneself and behaving in ways that create a desired impression. Self-presentation is part of a broader set of behaviors called impression management. Impression management refers to the controlled presentation of
Halo Effect Definition Halo effect refer to the widespread human tendency in impression formation to assume that once a person possesses some positive or negative characteristic, other as yet unknown qualities will also be positive or negative, in other words, consistent with the existing impression. It seems as if known personal characteristics radiate a positive
Attitude Formation Definition An attitude is a general and lasting positive or negative opinion or feeling about some person, object, or issue. Attitude formation occurs through either direct experience or the persuasion of others or the media. Attitudes have three foundations: affect or emotion, behavior, and cognitions. In addition, evidence suggests that attitudes may develop
Order Effects Definition Order effects refer to differences in research participants’ responses that result from the order (e.g., first, second, third) in which the experimental materials are presented to them. Order effects can occur in any kind of research. In survey research, for example, people may answer questions differently depending on the order in which
Hormones Definition A hormone is something produced in the body that circulates in the bloodstream and then influences the activity of living cells that are far from where it was produced. Because hormones travel to their target tissue, they are sometimes referred to as signaling molecules. For example, estrogen is produced by the ovaries, but
Why do people act the way they do? There is no simple answer to this question, because social behaviors, like all human characteristics, are influenced by multiple factors. The two most basic influences on social behavior are genes (the chemical instructions that people inherit from their parents’ DNA) and the environment (all other, noninherited factors).
Central Traits and Peripheral Traits Definition A central trait is an attribute in someone’s personality that is considered particularly meaningful, in that its presence or absence signals the presence or absence of other traits. For example, if a person has a warm personality, it usually means that he or she is also friendly, courteous, cheerful
Attitude Change Definition Attitudes are general evaluations of objects, ideas, and people one encounters throughout one’s life (e.g., “capital punishment is bad”). Attitudes are important because they can guide thought, behavior, and feelings. Attitude change occurs anytime an attitude is modified. Thus, change occurs when a person goes from being positive to negative, from slightly
Attitude-Behavior Consistency Definition The study of attitude-behavior consistency concerns the degree to which people’s attitudes (opinions) predict their behavior (actions). Attitude-behavior consistency exists when there is a strong relation between opinions and actions. For example, a person with a positive attitude toward protecting the environment who recycles paper and bottles shows high attitude-behavior consistency. The
Drive Theory Definition Drive refers to increased arousal and internal motivation to reach a particular goal. Psychologists differentiate between primary and secondary drives. Primary drives are directly related to survival and include the need for food, water, and oxygen. Secondary or acquired drives are those that are culturally determined or learned, such as the drive
Dual Process Theories Definition Dual process theories are a group of theories in social, personality, and cognitive psychology that describe how people think about information when they make judgments or solve problems. These theories are called dual process because they distinguish two basic ways of thinking about information: a relatively fast, superficial, spontaneous mode based
Benevolent Sexism Definition Benevolent sexism is a form of paternalistic prejudice (treating a lower status group as a father might treat a child) directed toward women. Prejudice is often thought of as a dislike or antipathy toward a group. Benevolent sexism, however, is an affectionate but patronizing attitude that treats women as needing men’s help
Helping Behavior Definition Helping behavior is providing aid or benefit to another person. It does not matter what the motivation of the helper is, only that the recipient is assisted. This is distinguished from the more general term prosocial behavior, which can include any cooperative or friendly behavior. It is also distinguished from the more
Aversive Racism Definition Aversive racism is a form of contemporary racism that, in contrast to the traditional form, operates unconsciously in subtle and indirect ways. Aversive racists regard themselves as nonprejudiced but, at the same time, harbor negative feelings and beliefs about members of minority groups. Aversive racism was originally hypothesized to characterize the attitudes
Anger Definition The term anger has multiple meanings in everyday language. People refer to anger as an experience or feeling, a set of physiological reactions, an attitude toward others, a drive leading to aggression, or an overt assault upon some target. In social psychology, anger refers to a particular set of feelings. The feelings usually
Anxiety Definition Anxiety is an unpleasant emotional state, characterized by tension, apprehension, and worry. It occurs in response to a perceived threat, which in the case of fear is fairly specific and identifiable (e.g., seeing a snake) but in the case of anxiety tends to be vague and suspenseful (e.g., giving a speech). It is
Arousal Definition Arousal generally refers to the experience of increased physiological (inside-the-body) activity. This can include an increased (faster) heart rate, perspiration, and rapid breathing. In some cases, the term arousal is used to specifically refer to sexual feelings (and the resulting bodily changes). In essence, arousal is the bodily sensation of feeling energized. A
Under the Federal Rules of Evidence and virtually all state codes, expertise is defined by the nature and scope of the proffered opinion. The basic issue with regard to a qualifications assessment is whether the witness has the background to support his or her intended testimony. An expert must be qualified to “assist the trier
Awe Definition Awe refers to an intense emotional response people may have when they encounter an object, event, or person that is extraordinary. Things that elicit awe are typically vast in size, significance, or both. Frequent elicitors of awe include nature, natural disasters, grand architecture and historical ruins, supernatural or spiritual experiences, scientific or technological
Fingerprints and other friction ridges of the skin have a persistent structure that often leaves characteristic evidence at crime scenes. Latent print examiners compare this evidence with inked copies of friction ridge skin from a known suspect to determine whether these two patterns originate from the same source. This examination process uses computer databases for
Buffering Effect Definition A buffering effect is a process in which a psychosocial resource reduces the impact of life stress on psycho-logical well-being. Having such a resource contributes to adjustment because persons are less affected by negative life events. Social support is a known buffering agent: Persons with high support show less adverse impact from
The rules of evidence regarding the admissibility of hearsay testimony are complex, but in general, the law treats hearsay as inadmissible evidence. A number of exceptions to this general rule exist, however, and psychologists have conducted research to examine how jurors evaluate and use hearsay testimony in their decision making. No simple conclusions can be
Disgust Definition Although there is much dispute about exactly what emotions are, everyone, starting with Charles Darwin in the 19th century, agrees that disgust is one of them. Disgust is almost always considered a basic emotion, often along with anger, fear, sadness, happiness, and surprise. Basic emotions, as defined most clearly by the psychologist Paul
What is the impact on juror verdicts of inadmissible evidence that surfaces in the courtroom and of judicial instruction to disregard such information? This question has been addressed in laboratory research by attention to its two component parts. First, the research establishes that the presence of inadmissible evidence has a significant impact on juror verdicts
Elevation Definition Novels, films, religious texts, and popular books often provoke a feeling in the viewer of being moved by the moral excellence of another person. Drawing upon Thomas Jefferson’s own analysis of this emotion, Jonathan Haidt has called this emotion elevation. According to Jefferson, elevation is the desire to perform acts of charity or
The insanity defense is one of the most controversial legal defenses in the U.S. legal system, as demonstrated through the constantly evolving insanity laws and the public response to insanity cases. There is extensive evidence to suggest that juror attitudes, preconceived notions, and case-relevant biases and beliefs affect their judgments in insanity defense cases. Research
The AMBER Alert system was designed to help rescue missing children. Law enforcement entities release information about the child and the perpetrator through public announcements on television, roadside signs, and the Internet. Citizens are expected to remember the information and report sightings to the police. Although the system has not been well evaluated, a number
Early studies by Martin Orne on demand effects and Robert Rosenthal on experimenter expectancy effects established the impact of a sender’s nonverbal communication and the way in which it might alter the behavior of others. In the courtroom, judges’ nonverbal behavior (e.g., tone of voice, demeanor) often communicates their expectations (sometimes termed leakage) about the
Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) is characterized by a lifelong pattern of behavior that violates the law and other people’s rights. Its primary relevance to the field of psychology and law stems from its association with criminal and violent behavior, as well as its implications for attempting to reduce the risk thereof through treatment. This research
The role of an eyewitness can be extremely important in the legal system, as eyewitness testimony and eyewitness identifications play a major role in the prosecution of a criminal defendant. Often the courts are left to rely solely on an eyewitness because there is no other physical evidence. This leaves the jury to rely on
Automatism is an excuse defense against criminal liability for defendants who committed a presumptively criminal act in a state of unconsciousness, semiconsciousness, or unawareness. Medically, the term automatism refers to motor behavior that is automatic, undirected, and not consciously controlled. The use of automatism as a legal defense is relatively rare and is typically claimed
Joinder is a legal term that refers to the combination of several counts, parties, or indictments in a single trial. Although there has been limited empirical research examining joinder trials, the research that has been conducted has focused almost entirely on the influence of the inclusion of additional indictments on juror decision making. In this
Conduct disorder (CD) is a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior that violates the rights of others or age-appropriate norms and causes significant impairments in various domains of functioning. CD accounts for a substantial number of youths who enter into mental health facilities in the United States and Canada, and for this reason it is
When a jury trial is conducted, community members who typically have no special legal training or knowledge are called on to serve as jurors. During the trial, the judge instructs jurors as to the relevant law and the procedures to be used to determine an appropriate verdict in the case. Unfortunately, jurors do not always