Embarrassment Definition Embarrassment is the emotion that results when social predicaments increase the threat of unwanted evaluations from real or imagined audiences. It occurs when people realize that they are making undesired impressions on others, and it usually strikes without warning when some misstep or abrupt change in fortune puts people in awkward situations. It
Many observers praise the abilities of juries in making decisions in both criminal and civil cases. Others, however, criticize the competence of juries, arguing that juries are not effective legal decision makers. Psychologists have conducted a variety of studies to evaluate how juries make decisions, using simulation and field experiments, archival data, and interviews of
Delusions are firmly held false beliefs. They are associated with numerous disorders, including schizophrenia and delusional disorder, but can also be found in patients with affective disorders and dementia. Several different types of delusions are recognized, including erotomanic delusions, grandiose delusions, jealous delusions, persecutory delusions, delusions of control, nihilistic delusions, delusions of guilt or sin
In American trials, the verdict is reached by either a judge or a jury, raising questions as to how these two fact finders reach their decisions and whether their decisions systematically differ. Most research has focused on the jury, though some key studies have compared the decisions of judges and juries. The available archival studies
Dissociative identity disorder (DID), formerly known as multiple-personality disorder, is one of the more controversial diagnoses in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth edition; DSM-IV), with there being considerable disagreement over the validity and etiology of the disorder. Amnesia between identities is central to a diagnosis of DID. While explicit memory tests
Jury deliberation begins when a trial ends and the jury moves to a secluded location to discuss the evidence and arrive at a decision. Understanding how juries reach their decisions is a prerequisite for answering the question of how well they serve their function in a democratic society. Jury deliberation has been studied empirically by
Emotional Contagion Definition Emotional contagion is the phenomenon that individuals tend to express and feel emotions that are similar to those of others. When someone tells you with a big smile that she passed an important test, you smile as well. If, on the other hand, your friend tells you his father passed away last
Juries have the implicit power to acquit defendants despite evidence and judicial instructions to the contrary. This power, called jury nullification, is embedded in the jury’s right to return a verdict by its own moral compass and has historically permitted sympathetic juries to acquit those whom the jurors perceive as legally guilty but morally upright.
Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the processes involved in the recognition, use, understanding, and management of one’s own and others’ emotional states to solve emotion-laden problems and to regulate behavior. EI, in this tradition, refers to an individual’s capacity to reason about emotions and to process emotional information to enhance reasoning. EI is a member
Jury questionnaires are often used during the voir dire process to help judges and attorneys identify prospective jurors who are not suitable for jury service. Jury questionnaires typically include items dealing with hardship or medical issues that may make it difficult for some individuals to serve as jurors. Often, at the discretion of the court
Empathy Definition Empathy has many different definitions, some with multiple parts. However, most definitions share the idea of one person’s response to his or her perceptions of another person’s current experience. Use of the word in English is relatively new, appearing at the beginning of the 20th century, often in discussions of art. Its origins
Over the past 15 years, courts have begun implementing a host of reforms to the jury system in response to growing criticism about jurors’ competence to decide cases. Of particular concern was the ability of jurors to set aside preexisting biases and to understand increasingly complex evidence and legal principles. This article describes the efforts undertaken
Envy Definition Envy refers to the often-painful emotion caused by an awareness of an advantage enjoyed by another person. It is a complex, socially repugnant emotion made up of a mix of inferiority feelings, hostility, and resentment. Envy is different from admiration, which is delight and approval inspired by another person. Admiration can foster a
Before a jury trial begins, attorneys must select a jury from a panel of community members who have reported for jury duty. Rather than choosing jurors to sit on the jury, attorneys choose people to exclude from the jury. The attorneys may excuse anyone who exhibits demonstrable bias that would interfere with his or her
Facial Expressions of Emotion Definition Human beings and some other animals have remarkable control over their facial muscles. Facial expressions of emotion are patterned movements of the muscles in the face that correspond with internal, affective states. Facial Expressions of Emotion Importance Communication is clearly important to effective social interaction. Whereas humans are able to
Both the size of the jury and the number of jurors who must be in agreement for a verdict to be concluded (the group’s “social decision rule”) have been the subject of litigation at the U.S. Supreme Court as well as a subject of research by psychologists and other social and behavioral scientists. The number
The facial-feedback hypothesis states that the contractions of the facial muscles may not only communicate what a person feels to others but also to the person him- or herself. In other words, facial expressions are believed to have a direct influence on the experience of affect. This hypothesis goes back to Charles Darwin, who wrote
Two contrasting images of the public have emerged from the literature on public attitudes toward sentencing and incarceration: a punitive public that demands long prison terms and a merciful public that supports community-based sanctions after considering the seriousness of the offense and the perceived character and blameworthiness of the offender. Although politicians and the media
Fear Appeals Definition Fear appeals, or fear-arousing communications, are communications that emphasize negative consequences of specific behaviors to motivate behavior change. Fear-arousing communications usually consist of two parts, namely, a fear appeal that stresses the severity of, and personal vulnerability to, a threat and a recommended protective action capable of reducing or eliminating the threat.
Over the past 15 years, the number of people under correctional supervision in the United States has more than doubled. Most of this growth is attributable to the rapidly expanding probation population, which recently reached an all-time high of more than 4 million offenders. In fact, the vast majority of all offenders under correctional supervision
Americans of Hispanic descent include people of any Mexican, Central and South American, and Caribbean nationality. Hispanics in the United States are a diverse population with great within-group and between-group differences. Many are relatively acculturated to mainstream American values, whereas others are more oriented toward their own traditional culture. Most (60%) of Hispanics in the
Gratitude Definition People experience gratitude when they affirm that something good has happened to them and when they recognize that someone else is largely responsible for this benefit. The source of the benefit is often (but not always) another human. The benefit prompting a grateful response may be the absence of some negative event, as
Conditional release programs for persons acquitted by reason of insanity (not guilty by reason of insanity or NGRI) are designed to maximize public safety while meeting the courts’ mandate that some individual liberties be protected. These programs developed as a result of the state and federal court decisions in the 1960s, which required that this
Holocaust is the term used to refer to the attempted annihilation of European Jewry and the brutal persecution of an extended “mosaic of victims” by German Nazis. When Did The Holocaust Occur And How Did It Unfold? The persecution of Jews began soon after Adolph Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933.
Hundreds of research studies that have examined a wide range of topics on public opinion about crime support the conclusion that citizens generally are not well-informed about this issue. For example, the public perceived that crime rates for several different types of crime were increasing during times when in fact those crime rates were decreasing or
Domestic violence courts (DVCs) are specialized court settings that deal predominantly with cases involving domestic violence. They have emerged in different state, regional, and national contexts, giving rise to different operational styles and models. For example, courts may sit full or part-time and deal with different levels of offense seriousness and all or various aspects
Giving birth at home is a tradition in many parts of the world because of limited access to health care facilities. In parts of Europe, the United Kingdom, Australia, and North America, women may choose to give birth at home instead of in the hospital. The choice to give birth at home is undertaken for
Guilt Definition Guilt is a widely misunderstood emotion, having long suffered from an undeserved, bad reputation. The popular press abounds with articles offering advice on how to live a guilt-free life, many therapists identify guilt reduction as one of their short-term treatment goals, and no one wants to be regarded as a guilt-inducing mother. But
Drug courts are therapeutically oriented courts that attempt to reduce drug-related crime through a mixture of treatment and judicial oversight. Dade County, Florida, established the first drug court in 1989. By mid-2006, there were 1,563 drug courts in the United States, including 411 juvenile drug courts. Single- and multisite studies of drug courts, as well
For a person to take the life of another person is in most, if not all, religions and cultures seen as one of the most serious crimes someone can commit. This holds true historically as well because killing has always been looked on as a serious offence, resulting in diligent investigation and severe punishment. Homicide
People are fascinated by violent crime, and serial murder may be the most fascinating crime of all. Books, newspapers, television shows, and movies recount the destructive paths of those who kill repeatedly. Many of these accounts leave the impression that serial killers are distinct from other types of criminals and from the public at large.
Correctional programs designed to be similar to military basic training are called “boot camps.” Although there are some programs for youths at risk of delinquency, these vary widely, and most juvenile boot camps are designed for children adjudicated as delinquent. This entry describes the program and operations of typical boot camps for adjudicated youths, reviews
The construct of homosexuality can be conceptualized from two major perspectives: essentialist and constructivist. Essentialist assumptions have informed the thinking of many theorists and researchers traditionally associated with human sexuality, such as Sigmund Freud. The essentialist perspective views homosexuality as a core attribute of individual identity. From this perspective, homosexuality is held to be temporally
Happiness Definition When psychologists use the term happiness, they tend to mean one of two things. In the narrow sense, happiness is a specific emotion that people feel when good things happen. It includes feelings of pleasantness along with moderate levels of arousal. In addition, the emotion often co-occurs with a specific facial expression: the
Parole decisions have important implications. For prisoners, such decisions mean early release or define the conditions of release. For the public, prisoner reentry raises concerns about safety and community integration. Despite waning enthusiasm for rehabilitation in some countries, by using advances in risk assessment and by partnering with correctional agencies, parole is ideally situated to
References to a concept of hope can be found throughout historical writings and across many different disciplines. Despite the frequency of discussions about hope, there is not one unified description or definition for the concept. Christian scholars frequently characterize hope as a virtue from God in which individuals are confident in receiving an eternal reward.
Sexual assault is a serious social problem of great concern. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services estimates that approximately 100,000 cases of child sexual abuse are substantiated each year. In addition, according to the 2005 National Crime Victimization survey, there were nearly 192,000 victims of rape, attempted rape, or sexual assault. In an
Presentence evaluations are those assessments conducted prior to the sentencing stage of proceedings to assist the court in making an appropriate disposition. Individual differences in crimes, criminals, and circumstances justify the need for personalized sentences in each case. Mental health professionals, probation officers, and social workers are among those in the forensic field called on
Hormone-replacement therapy (HRT) is a physician-prescribed program of treatment for women who are experiencing hormonal imbalances, during or after the occurrence of menopause. It usually refers to supplementing the body with the hormones estrogen and progesterone, which naturally decline during menopause, to treat the symptoms that follow. Estrogen is produced by the ovaries along with
Given the rising concern about the problem of sexual violence, increased attention has been given to the evaluation of existing treatment interventions and the exploration of new treatment models that aim to prevent or reduce future sexual violence. Because the rehabilitation of sex offenders might curb future sex offending and thus enhance overall public safety
With well over 2 million individuals confined in jails and prisons in the United States, it is easy to understand why the federal prison system and 24 state prison systems were above their rated capacity at the end of 2004. The data supplied by the Bureau of Justice Statistics revealed that the federal prison system
Hormones are chemical substances that are produced, stored, and released into the bloodstream by secretory structures (glands) of the endocrine system. The endocrine system, in turn, is designed to modulate various body functions, including digestion, metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, and response to stress and injury. Hormones are released by specific glands, move through the
It is widely assumed that material circumstances strongly affect human happiness. However, as the example of the “poor little rich girl” suggests, objective outcomes and happiness are not perfectly correlated. Indeed, many studies suggest that they are hardly correlated at all. For example, winners of lotteries do not report themselves as being much happier than
Probation officers’ decisions affect the legal experiences and case outcomes of a substantial number of defendants and offenders. Probation officers exercise discretion and use subjective judgments and standardized assessment tools in making decisions that influence the dispositions of criminal cases and offenders’ progress under community supervision. Probation officers serve the court by providing judges with
Hospice is a philosophy of care for people who have terminal illnesses and their families through the use of an interdisciplinary team that develops a coordinated, individualized plan of care. The focus of such care is on pain management and symptom control, within the context of maintaining quality of life for the dying patient and
Sex offenders are a heterogeneous group. While there is no standardized system for the taxonomy of sex offenders, they are generally classified into various typologies based on their offense characteristics, motivations for offending, and likelihood of recidivism. Sex offender typologies are important in that they capture the characteristics of sex offenders, and they can be
The sentencing decision is typically the last court decision made in a case. This decision has attracted the most attention from researchers studying legal decision making. After being convicted of a crime, a defendant may be sentenced to, for example, imprisonment, a community penalty, fine, restitution or compensation, or probation. A sentence may have one
The hot flash is a sudden sensation of heat typically experienced by women during their menopausal years, although they have been reported among young women during various phases of the menstrual cycle. Flashes (also called flushes) are the most common complaint of women in the menopause transition. The heat sensation generally begins in the chest
Hope Definition A typical dictionary definition of hope suggests that it reflects a goal-related expectation of success. In psychology, a definition that has gained considerable attention basically expands on this dictionary one. More specifically, hope is said to involve goal-directed thinking in which people perceive that they have the capacities to produce the routes to
Sentencing diversion programs are formal, institutionalized programs for people with mental illness that were created to reduce the volume of and frequency with which this population is involved in the criminal justice system as defendants. Their primary purpose is to divert persons with mental illness (PMIs) from the criminal justice system (including jail and prison)
Determining the sequence of the human genome has been compared in significance to Neil Armstrong’s first steps on the moon and to revealing the “book of life.” At the White House announcement of completion of a draft sequence, the achievement was described by President Clinton in 2000 as “Without a doubt . . . the
Research indicates that substance abuse is a risk marker for intimate partner violence (IPV). This article reviews the evidence for the association of substance abuse and domestic violence, possible explanations for it, and implications for theory and practice for professionals who work in this area. Substance Abuse as a Risk Marker for Domestic Violence Studies using a
The Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) has become a classic in the social sciences for its dramatic demonstration of the power of situational processes over individual dispositions of its participants. It pitted a powerful set of situational variables, which together comprised what is worse in the psychological experience of imprisonment, against the will to resist by
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus. A retrovirus is a type of virus that has viral RNA in its nucleus instead of DNA. The primary targets of HIV in the human body are T4 or T-helper cells. T4 cells help to organize the immune system’s response against a foreign invader (e.g., virus, bacteria
Substance use disorder is defined as the use of a substance that results in persistent and sometimes pervasive aversive consequences. Substance use disorders have profound economic and public health impacts in the United States. Researchers have identified important biological, psychological, and social factors that predict the development and resolution of substance use disorders. Biological processes related
The Suicide Assessment Manual for Inmates (SAMI) is a new instrument designed to assess risk for suicide attempts among individuals admitted to a pretrial remand center or jail. The SAMI is a 20-item clinical checklist of risk factors derived from the suicide research literature. Initial research on the SAMI has focused on its factor structure
Humor is closely related to play; indeed, it can be viewed as a form of “mental play.” When we engage in humor, we are playing with words and ideas. Compared with other forms of play, however, humor involves a more deliberate distortion of reality. For example, a child engaging in “serious” make-believe play might dress
Independence of Affect Definition Positive and negative affect are often referred to as the Big Two emotions. They each refer to superfactors of emotion, and according to Randy J. Larsen and Ed Diener, each consists of several subcomponents of different feeling states. Positive affect refers to all high-energy emotions that feel good or pleasurable. Some
Prisoner suicide assessment and prevention is an area of active research and clinical involvement. Indeed, it is an important component of the forensic psychologist’s clinical responsibilities due to the disproportionately high incidence of prison suicide as compared with the general population. This high incidence is a consistent phenomenon across countries. In some countries, this translates
Huntington’s disease (HD) is an inherited brain disorder named for Dr. George Huntington, who first described this disorder in 1872. HD is now recognized as one of the more common genetic disorders. HD currently affects 30,000 Americans, and nearly 250,000 more are at risk for this disease. At present, there is no known cure. This
Suicide by cop (SbC) is a phenomenon confronted by police officers in which suicidal individuals behave in such a way as to force officers to use lethal force against them. Research findings have found common characteristics and behaviors among SbC subjects. The phenomenon is recognized sufficiently that there are a number of court decisions that
For more than one and a half centuries, from the first insanity defense commitment of John Hadfield in England in 1800 through the mid-1960s, insane defendants (those not guilty by reason of insanity, or NGRIs) were automatically and indefinitely committed to a secure psychiatric facility until the state determined that they could be released. Until
The Mayo Clinic reports that about 4,000 infants in the United States are born with hydrocephalus, and an estimated 6,000 children develop hydrocephalus during the first 2 years of life. The mechanics of hydrocephalus are interesting. The spinal cord and the brain are cushioned or protected from jarring injury by the systemic flow of cerebrospinal
Jealousy Definition Jealousy is an unpleasant emotion that arises when one perceives that some important aspect of one’s relationship with another, or the relationship itself, is being threatened by someone else (a rival). For example, a person is likely to experience jealousy if his or her romantic partner appears to be emotionally or sexually interested
Therapeutic communities use interpersonal interactions within a structured community milieu to treat substance abuse. They have shown promising outcomes, especially among people with substance use disorders who require a highly structured environment to succeed. Therapeutic communities are used frequently in correctional institutions to treat inmates with severe substance use disorders and who exhibit antisocial behavior.
In scientific research, a hypothesis is a statement about a predicted relationship between variables. A good research hypothesis can be formulated as an “if-then” statement: If a child is exposed to the music of Mozart, then that child’s intelligence will increase. If students learn a math lesson by interacting with a computer, then they will
Terrorism, like many other horrific types of violence, has begged in the minds of many for a psychological explanation. The research and systematic analysis that has been done on the topic, however, show that neither mental illness nor a simple “lack of conscience” are significant primary causes of terrorism. There is no known “terrorist personality.”
Super-maximum secure or “supermax” prisons are used to hold those prisoners whom prison authorities regard as the most problematic in the prison system. These facilities merge the 19th-century practice of long-term solitary confinement with 21st-century technology in ways that subject prisoners to unparalleled levels of isolation, surveillance, and control, usually for long duration, with the
The id (Latin for “that thing”) is present at birth and developmentally is the oldest of the three psychological structures proposed by Sigmund Freud as part of the mind. According to Freud, neither the ego nor the superego is active or even formed so early in the individual’s development, when the id serves as the
Social psychologists have long known that emotions influence many aspects of decision making, and a growing body of research demonstrates that this is especially true in the domain of morality. Because morality generally consists of rules guiding our treatment of other people, and because emotions are often (though not always) elicited in the context of
The Innocence Project, an organization dedicated to exonerating the wrongfully convicted by means of DNA testing, has to date been responsible for freeing 197 people from unjust imprisonment. By examining the particulars of wrongful conviction cases, the Innocence Project has also identified several factors contributing to these miscarriages of justice. One such factor is false
When two fetuses are carried simultaneously and delivered by a woman, it is termed a twin birth. Most multiple births are twins. In 1997, 94% of multiple births reported were twins. However, most of these twin births were fraternal or nonidentical twins. Twins referred to as identical or paternal twins (also known as monozygotic or
It seems that people can be wrong about or unaware of many things, but at least they can be sure about their own emotions. Yet, psychologists challenge even that certainty and point out that one’s emotional life can be a mystery, even to oneself. The idea of nonconscious emotion proposes in its strongest form that
Law enforcement personnel use a variety of procedures to elicit confessions from suspects. The Reid Technique uses psychological methods to elicit confessions from those who are believed to be guilty, without the need to resort to physical force to extract a confession. The technique, initially developed in the 1940s and 1950s, was first published in
The problem of identity is where psychology merges with culture. Human beings are biological creatures, to be sure. But among the myriad species on our planet, we are strongly given to the absorption of story into our being, so that we are self-consciously biographical creatures, needing reminders from time to time that we are animals
Positive Affect Definition Positive affect is the pleasant state that can be induced by small things that happen in everyday life. It is one of the most exciting topics currently under investigation in the psychological research literature. The findings suggest that there is the potential for a large impact of positive affect on social behavior
Statement Validity Assessment (SVA) is a tool designed to determine the credibility of child witnesses’ testimonies in trials for sexual offenses. SVA assessments are accepted as evidence in some North American courts and in criminal courts in several West European countries. The tool originated in Sweden and Germany and consists of four stages. Much of
Frances Lillian Ilg, MD, was born in Oak Park, Illinois. A pediatrician and professor at Yale, Ilg was a pioneering scholar in infant and child development and cofounder and first director (1950) of the Gesell Institute of Child Development (now the Gesell Institute of Human Development) and recipient of the Snow award for Distinguished Service
Regret Definition Regret is the negative emotion that people experience when realizing or imagining that their present situation would have been better had they decided or acted differently. Regret thus originates in a comparison between outcomes of a chosen option and the non-chosen alternatives in which the latter outperforms the former. This painful emotion reflects
The public is routinely informed that suspects have been administered a polygraph test and have either failed or passed the test. In some cases, this information is provided during the trial. Consequently, how the public judges the polygraph test is of interest to those in the legal community. A number of studies have addressed how
Originally used to represent the false belief that one is being watched and evaluated by others, David Elkind proposed that construction of an imaginary audience during early adolescence was a form of “adolescent egocentrism,” which he saw as a natural outgrowth of the transition to Piaget’s formal-operational stage of cognitive development. Adolescent egocentrism is reduced
Shame Definition Shame is one of the most overlooked emotions, at least among individuals residing in Western cultures. Feelings of shame can have a profound effect on one’s level of psychological adjustment and one’s relationships with others, but these feelings nonetheless often go undetected. People rarely speak of their shame experiences. Denial and a desire
Psychological profiling is a relatively new investigative technique that, in the past 30 years, has developed from what used to be described as an art to a rigorous science based on advanced empirical research. Results from the first wave of research have shown that there is validity to the idea that aspects of an offender’s
Imaginary friends are a charming part of early childhood and beyond. Between one half and two thirds of children create such friends, and they come in all shapes and sizes. Some children create imaginary companions that are ordinary playmates with common names. Other companions have unusual qualities, like the ability to fly or magical eyes
Social Anxiety Definition Social anxiety, as the term implies, refers to anxiety (a feeling of emotional distress akin to fear or panic) experienced in interpersonal situations, such as job interviews, dates, public presentations, or casual social gatherings. Because of the variety of situations in which people experience social anxiety, several specific types of social anxiety
Polygraph is a general term that refers to the use of autonomic physiological measures to make assessments about a person’s credibility. Polygraph techniques find wide application in the criminal justice and national security systems of many countries, and their use is growing worldwide. There are two major families of polygraph techniques. Knowledge approaches look for
Imaginary thinking occurs when the contents of our thoughts escape the boundaries of the here and now, such as when we reflect on the past or imagine the future. Sometimes the content of imaginary thinking is accurate or realistic, but frequently our thoughts go beyond what is true or likely as we contemplate fictional worlds
Stress Definition Stress occurs when an individual perceives that the demands of a personally important situation tax or exceed his or her capabilities and resources. The situation can be a major event such as the death of a loved one, an interaction with another person such as a disagreement with a coworker, or even an
Police use of force is the application in a law enforcement capacity of physical or psychological coercion against citizens. Under the law, police officers have the authority to use force for enforcing laws, preventing criminal activity, defending others, and defending themselves. They have the discretionary power to use different degrees of force against citizens who
Anthropological evidence has shown that, in many cultures, observational learning and imitation are the major ways by which behaviors unique to that culture are transmitted from one generation to the next. It has been argued that imitation is more efficient than either trial-and-error learning or individual problem solving. Learning by imitation is much more rapid
Surprise Definition Surprise is the sense of astonishment, wonder, or amazement that is caused by something sudden or unexpected. The experience of surprise varies with the importance of the outcome, as well as beliefs about the outcome. Some formalists have offered mathematical definitions of surprise (i.e., a comparison of Bayesian priors and posteriors), but there
A worker may be required to leave the workplace because of the experience of an extreme stressor on the job, disability, discipline, or concern about threat. That same worker may wish to return to the job, raising questions about whether the worker may effectively resume functioning. This entry deals with several kinds of evaluations conducted
Long-term relocation across national borders represents one of the major ways in which the structure of populations in various countries changes. As a result, immigration remains one of the most important and highly charged sociopolitical issues today. Although everyone is a native of one particular nation, people may sometimes find it necessary to move from
Brainstorming Definition Brainstorming is a widely used method to stimulate creativity in problem solving. In a structured session, people (usually in a group) generate as many creative ideas as possible. Social psychologists have mainly studied whether it is more effective to brainstorm in a group or alone, and have come to the counterintuitive conclusion that
Police training is a process by which teachers communicate to police personnel job-related knowledge and skills and assist them in mastery of the material. Training occurs at recruit, field, and in-service levels. Sworn police personnel, nonsworn personnel, or police psychologists, who have special knowledge of police behavior, present the training topics. Psychological knowledge, in part
The immune system is a defense system that protects invertebrate and vertebrate animals from microorganisms and substances recognized as foreign and potentially harmful. It evolved through a gradual process of increasing diversification that led to the enormous complexity of recognition and elimination mechanisms present in higher vertebrates. These recognition and elimination mechanisms operate and cooperate
Cohesiveness Definition ohesiveness refers to the degree of unity or “we-ness” in a group. More formally, cohesiveness denotes the strength of all ties that link individuals to a group. These ties can be social or task oriented in nature. Specifically, a group that is tied together by mutual friendship, caring, or personal liking is displaying
This entry defines police stress and describes its consequences, origins, and the individual and organizational methods to control it. Controlling stress can enhance the delivery of police services and guide officers toward healthy lifestyles. One definition of stress is the wear and tear our bodies and minds experience as we react to physiological, psychological, and
Immunization is a procedure routinely used to improve the body’s ability to overcome infection and protect against diseases caused by infectious agents. It works against a specific disease by training the immune system to rapidly recognize and eliminate the infectious agent that causes that disease, thus resulting in immunity. Protection can be acquired either by
The contingency model of leadership is a model of leadership effectiveness that predicts group performance will be based on the interplay between leadership style and various situational factors. Because different leadership styles work more effectively in certain situations than in others, the model predicts optimal group performance will result when a leadership style accords with
Over the past four decades, a rapidly growing specialty area of psychology has been that of psychologists working within the realm of law enforcement. Police psychologists are involved in the selection of employees; fitness-for-duty evaluations; various therapeutic programs, both individual and group; the evaluation, treatment, and referral of substance abuse, domestic violence, and gambling; the
In contrast to altricial animals, precocial species must be able to walk within a short time after birth. However, this ability may result in wandering away from the safety of the mother. Newly hatched domestic fowl, ducks, geese, quail, ungulates, and guinea pigs are precocial. These young animals are dependent on the mother for food
Crowding Definition Environmental psychologists study how human behavior and the physical environment interrelate. Decision making and behavior make an impact on environmental quality—did you walk, bike, drive, or use public transit to get to school today? The physical environment also affects behavior. Crowding illustrates how the physical environment can affect human behavior. Psychologists distinguish between
Police occupational socialization is the process whereby individuals learn to be fit for performing police work by becoming aware of organizational and occupational practices, internalizing them, and carrying them out as participating members of their work group. Learning takes place through three social phases: pre-entry, entry, and in-service. This sequence involves individuals making a choice
Inborn errors of metabolism (IEMs) are singlegene disorders that block a normal metabolic process and produce a nonmetabolized substance that often has serious, in some cases fatal, consequences. Each of the over 300 known IEMs is of low prevalence in the population at large, ranging from 1/10,000 to perhaps 1/350,000 births, but in combination affect
Deindividuation Definition Deindividuation theory was developed to explain the violence and irrationality of the crowd. How does a group of seemingly normal individuals become an unruly mob? According to deindividuation theory, the anonymity and excitement of the crowd make individuals lose a sense of individual identity. As a result, crowd members cease to evaluate themselves
Police calls for service sometimes involve the police interacting with and responding to people with mental illness. The dismantling of state mental hospitals, the changing mentally ill population, the tightening of requirements for receiving mental health support, and the offering of limited psychological services are bringing the police into contact with more people with mental
The legal definition of incest varies from state to state, but most often includes a prohibition of sexual contact between persons who are related by blood and/or social ties. Most states consider that minor children cannot give consent before a defined age and therefore child/adult incest is a criminal act, whether or not there is
Police officers are gatekeepers to the criminal court system for those who call on their assistance, including domestic violence victims; as such, police exercise much discretion regarding how to respond to domestic violence. This research paper examines what criteria police officers use to make arrest decisions in domestic violence cases and what community, departmental, and
Inclusion Of Children With Disabilities In Regular Classroom Settings Over the last 30 years, there has been a steady shift toward greater inclusion of children with disabilities in regular classroom settings. Inclusive education means that children with and without disabilities are educated together in integrated classrooms. In inclusive settings, all children and their parents have
Police officers are gatekeepers of the criminal court system and must make a number of critical decisions during their interactions with citizens and in the performance of their duties. To make decisions, officers use normative criteria such as responsibility and blameworthiness as well as pragmatic and efficiency criteria such as the likelihood of conviction, the
Urinary incontinence is a condition that occurs when there is involuntary loss of urine from the bladder. It is estimated that more than 17 million Americans are affected, women more commonly than men (38% versus 19%). Costs related to medical care, sanitary products, and pharmaceutical agents top $28 billion per year. Urinary incontinence occurs across
The independent living movement was born in the mid to late 1960s along with several other civil rights groups, such as African Americans and women, who became activists for equality in American society. Before this time, many people with disabilities lived either with their parents or sadly, in nursing homes or other institutions, because they
Human variation in psychological, physical, and behavioral characteristics is both an obvious and inescapable reality. Recognition of this universal phenomenon likely arose in step with the rise of human civilization. Formal philosophical treatment of individual differences in intellect, integrity, and motivation, for example, can easily be traced back at least to Plato, and evidence indicates that
Special education has been through many stages of reform. By the 1970s, the need for safeguarding students with disabilities from erroneous or permanent special education placements gave way to the development of service contracts–individualized education programs. These documents, or IEPs, gave families protection from schools and made educators accountable for the services they offer children
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1997 is the latest reauthorization of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975. This federal legislation provides the structure and funding for the provision of special education and related services to over 6.2 million children with identified educational disabilities between the ages of 3 and
Infancy ranges in age from the moment of birth to about 2 years of age when the young child begins to use words to make sentences. In fact, the word “infant” means literally “one who is unable to speak.” Infancy is unique in that it is the earliest stage of life outside of the womb
Infant mortality is defined as the death of an infant prior to its first birthday. This definition clearly excludes death in utero, or stillborn infants. Although there has been a gradual reduction in the worldwide rate of infant mortality over the last 20 years, this remains a significant public health concern, as infant death continues
Infanticide is the killing of an infant or young child(ren) by a parent or stepparent; however, specific terminology varies with the age of the victim. Murders occurring within 24 hours of birth are referred to as neonaticides. Those committed after the first 24 hours but prior to 1 year of life are labeled as infanticide.
Infection refers to the successful transmission of a microorganism (bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite) to the host, with subsequent multiplication of the microorganism (infectious agent). The host response to infections is highly variable and depends on the relationship between host and infectious agent. An infection may be subclinical (unapparent) or may result in disease. The
The majority of couples worldwide expect to have children, and few ever contemplate the possibility that they will be unable to do so. Yet at least 1 in 10 couples experiences difficulty in becoming pregnant, a stressor that can rank among the most emotionally taxing crises of adulthood. What Is Infertility? About one fourth of
Inductive reasoning is the ubiquitous mental activity of using existing knowledge to generate new knowledge that is likely, though not guaranteed, to be true. Inductive reasoning is required whenever people need to fill in gaps in their knowledge with “best guesses” about the state of the world. Generalizing that all snakes are black after encountering
Information processing theories explain how people work with or perform mental operations on information they have received. These operations include all mental activities that involve noticing, taking in, manipulating, storing, combining, or retrieving information. This approach to human development emphasizes the fundamental mental processes involved in attention, perception, memory, decision making, and reasoning. Basically, information
Broadly speaking, inhibitory control is the ability to suppress the activation, processing, or expression of information that would otherwise interfere with the efficient attainment of a cognitive or behavioral goal. Everyday examples of inhibitory control include a student who must ignore the conversations of her siblings while she is trying to study for an exam
Injuries have a significant impact on development beginning in infancy, reaching a peak during the adolescent and young adult years, but persisting in importance throughout the life span. Most experts no longer use the term “accidents,” when referring to these events. Based on its Latin roots, accident refers to an event that happens unexpectedly or
Many adults believe that their thinking and memory skills are getting poorer, or will become so, as they grow older. Older adults frequently report that their memory is “not as good as it used to be,” and some may avoid participating in adult education or workplace training because they believe that “you can’t teach an
One of Karl Spearman’s (an important figure in the early work on intelligence) major works was titled The Nature of Intelligence and the Principles of Cognition (1923). Galton, Binet and Henri, Thurstone, and Guilford also published works regarding the concept of intelligence. Nonetheless, cognitive psychology was not identified as a part of psychology until the
Intergenerational relationships refer to ties between individuals or groups of different ages. Sweeping changes in American family structure, especially since World War II, have dramatically altered ties between generations for older and younger generations alike. Many intergenerational ties now last longer than at any time in the past. As social networks contract due to loss
Internet use is widespread and growing. Current studies indicate that 149 million people are online worldwide, and that the number is increasing at a rate of 12% per month. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 22.2% of the 76 million American computer users aged 3 and older use the Internet, and one fifth of children
Interracial relationships have existed for years, though society traditionally has had difficulty accepting these unions. Over the years, attitudes toward interracial relationships have changed dramatically and will likely continue to change as our society becomes increasingly diverse. An interracial marriage is generally defined as the union between two individuals who come from different racial/ethnic backgrounds
Sexual offenders do great societal damage that causes justifiable public concern. Over the past 10 years, psychology has developed the ability to reliably classify male sexual offenders as low, moderate, and high risk for sexual recidivism (Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool-Revised, Risk Matrix-2000, Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism, and STATIC-99) based on historical
The STATIC-99 and the STATIC-2002 are actuarial instruments that predict sex offender recidivism. They were designed to be widely applicable risk scales for the prediction of sexual recidivism that could be scored using commonly available file information from forensic settings such as prisons and forensic hospitals. Actuarial instruments for sex offender re-offense categorize sexual offenders
The Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY), developed by Randy Borum, Patrick Bartel, and Adelle Forth, is a risk assessment instrument designed to structure appraisals of violence risk and risk management plans for adolescents. Such assessments are routinely required by juvenile and criminal courts and at nearly every juncture of the juvenile justice
The violence risk appraisal guide (VRAG) is an actuarial instrument that assesses the risk of further violence among men or women who have already committed criminal violence. On average, it has yielded a large effect in the prediction of violent recidivism in more than three dozen separate replications, including several different countries, a wide range
Interest in juvenile offenders has increased in the past few decades due to the large number of youths coming into contact with the law and the rising violent crime. Research by Howard Snyder and Melissa Sickmund provides extensive juvenile population and crime statistic data, and some of their pertinent information is summarized here to provide
Victimization can be defined as the act or process of someone being injured or damaged by another person. The resulting damage may be physical (e.g., bruises, broken bones) or psychological (e.g., posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], depression). Victimization is a frequent event that occurs within an interpersonal context, often involving an abuse of power, such as
Battered woman syndrome (BWS), first proposed in the 1970s after research demonstrated the psychological impact from domestic violence on the victim, has undergone further clarification since its inception. This research paper reviews the historical issues concerning domestic violence and its victims in the criminal justice system (including the criminal and family courts), describes psychological theories
Child maltreatment extends across class, culture, ethnicity, and nationality. In the United States alone, upward of 3 million cases of child abuse are reported annually, and more than 1,000 children die each year as a result of abuse. However, these numbers are likely underestimates of the scope of the problem because, as most experts agree
Bias crime represents the nadir of intergroup relationships and contact. Prejudice and bigotry give rise to bias crime, and bigotry accompanies bias offenses. Protected categories of victims according to the bias crime statutes include ethnic, racial, religious, and sexual minorities as well as those with mental or physical disability status. Although debate about the criminalization
Although definitions can vary across legal, clinical, and research contexts, child sexual abuse is commonly defined as sexual acts between a youth and an older person (e.g., by 5 years or more) in which the dominance of the older person is used to exploit or coerce the youth. Behaviors may include noncontact (e.g., exposure) and
There is no agreed precise definition of the term cybercrime, but in a general sense, it has been used to describe any illegal activities conducted through the use of a computer or network of computers. Some researchers have emphasized that it is crime that takes place on the Internet, which has led to a more
The phrase intimate partner violence encompasses a pattern of psychological and emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and stalking between past or present intimate romantic partners. Scientific and clinical evidence indicates that intimate partner violence can result in a plethora of mental health and physical maladies due to ongoing patterns of abuse within relationships, and
An uncomplicated mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is traumatic brain injury in which there is a brief loss of consciousness, brief posttraumatic amnesia, or an alteration of mental status (e.g., feeling dazed) without evidence of neurological damage. Physical, cognitive, and psychological symptoms are common in the days and weeks immediately following the injury, but these
This article briefly examines the history of the diagnosis of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), the current symptoms that characterize this syndrome, risk factors for PTSD, and evidence about the prevalence of this disorder in relation to specific traumas. It also summarizes the debate about the expression of PTSD in children and other special populations and discusses
A psychological autopsy (or psychiatric autopsy—the terms are used interchangeably) is a reconstructive mental state evaluation (RMSE) focused on understanding a deceased individual’s mental state at and around the time of death, typically for the purpose of identifying the cause of death (accident vs. suicide or another explanation). Norman Faberow, Robert Litman, and Edwin Shneidman
Rape trauma syndrome (RTS) is a topic about which experts testify in legal cases. It is most often used by prosecutors in sexual assault cases to counter a defendant’s claim that the sexual contact in question was consensual. The specific nature of the testimony varies from case to case but often includes a description of
Almost all crimes become known to the police because citizens, usually victims, report them. In this role as gatekeeper, victims weigh their concerns about injustice, their own security, and the security of the community against the costs of reporting the crime, which may include a belief that the police are unlikely to arrest the offender
Coping strategies of adult rape victims refers to the ways in which rape victims respond to an assault. Most of this research focuses on female victims because most sexual assault victims are women. Although the term coping implies that someone is adjusting well, coping strategies can actually be either helpful or unhelpful. Less helpful strategies
Cognitive Consistency Definition You have a friend named Jeff who likes to smoke cigarettes regularly. After attending a lecture on the grave cause-effect relationship between smoking and cancer, he quits. Why? This evening, you will be meeting with two people, Chris and Jean. You really like Chris, but you don’t like Jean. However, Chris really
The Framingham Heart Study pioneered the identification of “risk factors” for heart disease, and this ongoing and ambitious study continues to contribute to the understanding of heart disease and other cardiovascular and related illnesses. Of primary significance to psychology is that findings from this study identify psychosocial risk factors for heart disease and highlight the
This research paper discusses some of the more important variables such as sex of the observer, complainant, and alleged harasser; organizational structure; and individual differences in observers, complainants, and alleged harassers. While not all psychological studies of sexual harassment follow the contours of discrimination law, all the scientific literature eventually comes into contact with the
Behavioral Economics Definition Everyday life is full of decisions and choices. Economic decisions are especially important to our lives whether we are deciding what to buy for lunch, shopping around for the best price on books, thinking about saving for vacation, or negotiating for a better salary. An important question for many researchers is how
When two fetuses are carried simultaneously and delivered by a woman, it is termed a twin birth. Most multiple births are twins. In 1997, 94% of multiple births reported were twins. The numbers of twin, triplet, and higher-order multiple births have climbed at an unprecedented rate during the past 20 years. Between 1980 and 1997
While the legal definition of stalking varies across jurisdictions, behaviorally, it is generally considered to comprise any of a wide range of repeated acts that either threaten the victim, are intended to cause fear or harm, cause distress, or are otherwise unwanted by the victim. Before the proscription of stalking into criminal law, instances of
Fast and Frugal Heuristics Definition Fast and frugal heuristics, as defined by Gerd Gigerenzer, Peter M. Todd, and the ABC Research Group, are simple, task-specific decision strategies that are part of a decision maker’s repertoire of cognitive strategies for solving judgment and decision tasks. Fast and frugal heuristics are simple to execute because they limit
Sigmund Freud is arguably the most influential psychologist in history. Born in Freiberg, Moravia (now Pribor, Czech Republic), lived in Vienna, Austria from about age 5 until his forced exile to London in 1938. Completing his medical degree in 1881, Freud’s early interest was in neurology; he studied hypnosis as a treatment for neurosis under
As a result of a number of developments—including the rise of restorative justice—victims in common-law jurisdictions now have far more input into the criminal process. Victim participatory rights are currently recognized as an important component of criminal justice proceedings. Research has shown that victim participation in justice can help victims who want to be included
Free will is a controversial idea in social psychology. Researchers have begun to talk about it and study it, including ordinary people’s beliefs about it, but there are many social psychologists who insist that all such beliefs are mistaken. As a field of scientific research, social psychology is almost certainly unable to prove whether free
Defining Friendship In all cultures, friendships are important relationships throughout the life span. What exactly is friendship? Although there are multiple types of friends, including neighborhood friends, same-sex friends, other-sex friends, and best friends, friendship is generally characterized by five defining features. First, friendship is a dyadic relationship, meaning that it involves a series of
Trial consulting gained attention in 1971, when “scientific jury selection” was employed by a group of social scientists in the defense of the Harrisburg Seven, a group of war protesters who faced conspiracy and kidnapping charges. Since that time, the field has grown considerably in terms of both the number of professionals in the field and
Grim Necessities Definition Grim necessities are activities with short-term negative consequences but long-term positive payoffs. For example, reading a boring textbook is unpleasant in the short term but rewarding in the long term, because it helps you get a good grade on the exam. Other commonly listed grim necessities are working at a boring job
Funerals are the most commonly recognized bereavement ritual linked to death loss. Bereavement rituals can prove helpful for individuals by offering a way to acknowledge the death, remember the deceased, or understand and openly express feelings. These rituals afford the opportunity to say goodbye and form a new relationship with the deceased. Despite the many
An alibi, in its most basic form, is a plea that one was not present when a crime was being committed. In practice, alibis can be considerably more complex than a simple narrative story. In the criminal justice system, alibis function as exculpatory evidence—a good alibi should rule out the alibi provider as a potential
Hindsight Bias Definition Recollection or reevaluation of past events can be affected by what has happened since. In particular, once people know the outcome of an event, they tend to overestimate what could have been anticipated in foresight. This effect has been termed hindsight bias or the knew-it-all-along effect. Designs, Materials, and Measures of Hindsight
A gamete is a cell containing half the amount of genetic material found in a somatic (body) cell that is capable of joining with another gamete and developing into a new individual. In this sense, the joined gametes (zygote) form the earliest stem cell since this one cell will go on to form a completely
Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) has come to refer broadly to a range of processes (e.g., bilateral negotiation, fact finding, mediation, summary jury trial, arbitration) that are used in transactional (e.g., design contracts, develop regulations), dispute prevention, and dispute resolution contexts. ADR processes operate in public and private settings, such as courts, government agencies, community mediation
Hot Hand Effect Definition Many sports fans, commentators, players, and even coaches share a belief that a particular player can for some period of time have the hot hand; that is, be “in the zone,” “on a roll,” “unstoppable,” or “playing their A-game.” The hot hand effect refers to the tendency for people to expect
The past 15 years have witnessed a dramatic resurgence in youth gang activity in the United States. One of several types of gangs (others include prison gangs, motorcycle gangs, hate groups, ideological gangs, and adult street gangs), youth gangs are not new to the American landscape. Modern youth gangs, however, are more dangerous than their
Amicus curiae literally means “friend of the court,” and the author of an amicus curiae brief is an entity who wishes to provide legal, scientific, or technical information to a court to aid its decision. An amicus is not a party to the case entitled to be heard as a matter of right but an
Hyperbolic Discounting Definition Hyperbolic discounting refers to the tendency for people to increasingly choose a smaller-sooner reward over a larger-later reward as the delay occurs sooner rather than later in time. When offered a larger reward in exchange for waiting a set amount of time, people act less impulsively (i.e., choose to wait) as the
Howard Gardner, a Harvard professor, cognitive research psychologist, and prolific author, is best known for his theory of multiple intelligences, first described in Frames of Mind (1983) and subsequently refined and extended in Intelligence Reframed (1999). Gardner’s work has inspired teachers, school leaders, and special educators to embrace the notion that there is more than
The bail-setting decision is one of the early court decisions made in a case, and it has attracted attention from researchers studying legal decision making. When a case is adjourned (postponed), the court must decide what to do with the defendant until the next hearing of the case—basically, should the defendant be released on bail
There are times when people wish to conceal their thoughts, feelings, and emotions from others. Anxiety over approaching a potential romantic partner, feelings of disgust over a disagreeable entree one is served at a dinner party, nervousness over delivering a public speech, or uneasiness stemming from telling a lie—all are internal states that people may
Given the recent debate over the legitimacy of same-sex marriage, a discussion on gay and lesbian matrimony is appropriate. In this entry, we provide a brief historical account of same-sex unions, showing the foundation of the ageless debate over gay and lesbian marriage. We also address the present frequency of marriage between same-sex partners, providing
The most common form of syndrome testimony that has been introduced in the courtroom is battered woman syndrome testimony. For the most part, this testimony has been offered in homicide trials of battered women who have killed their abusers. Most often, the expert witness, typically a clinical psychologist, offers the testimony on behalf of the
An illusory correlation occurs when a person perceives a relationship between two variables that are not in fact correlated. In the first study to demonstrate this phenomenon, participants were presented with pairs of words from two stimulus lists. Each word from the first list was paired an equal number of times with each word from
Although the exact origin of the term gateway drug remains uncertain, the use of the term seems to have accelerated sharply in the early to mid-1980s in conjunction with the U.S. “war on drugs.” The notion that the use of certain substances tends to precede the use of other substances, however, predates the widespread use
The Chicago Jury Project was a large-scale social science research initiative in the 1950s. This research paper provides a descriptive portrait of the project, followed by a brief summary of the primary studies associated with it, and then a discussion of the project’s legacy and its impact on the field of psychology and law. In
Integrative Complexity Definition Integrative complexity deals with how people process information. Some people may view things in simple terms (e.g., John is always introverted), and some may view them in more complex ways (e.g., whether John is introverted depends on how well he knows the people in the situation). More formally, level of complexity depends
How men and women, and girls and boys, differ from each other has been the focus of much study in developmental psychology. Numerous newspaper and magazines articles on the topic of gender differences attest to their importance outside developmental psychology as well. Gender refers to the societal, social, and behavioral ways that are associated with
Children may experience or witness crime and may need to provide reports to authorities. Children’s eyewitness accounts can contain critical information about serious acts such as murder, domestic violence, kidnapping, and assault. Child sexual abuse is particularly likely to bring children into contact with the criminal justice system because the case may boil down to
Law of Small Numbers Definition The law of small numbers refers to the incorrect belief held by experts and laypeople alike that small samples ought to resemble the population from which they are drawn. Although this is true of large samples, it isn’t for small ones. So the “law” of small numbers isn’t really a
All children learn that they are either male or female, but what meaning do they give to the fact that they are one sex and not the other? In all cultures, boys and girls are expected to behave differently, and thus it is likely that children worldwide occasionally reflect on questions such as these: Am
When children are involved in trials as witnesses, victims, or defendants, jurors must decide whether they are credible and how to weigh their testimony in reaching a verdict. Thus, although much psychological research focuses on the actual accuracy of children’s eyewitness testimony, it is also important to consider their perceived accuracy. Research reveals that jurors
Loss Aversion Definition Loss aversion refers to people’s tendency to prefer avoiding losses to acquiring gains of equal magnitude. In other words, the value people place on avoiding a certain loss is higher than the value of acquiring a gain of equal size. Consider, for instance, the subjective value of avoiding a loss of $10
Gender is one of the most central attributes people have and an object of endless interest across all societies. Thus it should not be surprising that children are also aware of gender-related characteristics and quickly come to display those qualities themselves well before their own sexual maturity. What is surprising is just how early gender
Complex litigation tends to get framed as a problem for the jury system, but it is more properly viewed as a problem for any fact finder—juror, judge, arbitrator, expert panel—and for the litigants and their attorneys. Still, the jury framing is useful because it brings into focus some of the resources a fact finder needs
Mental Accounting Definition Mental accounting is a theory that describes how people think about money. This theory suggests that people track and coordinate their financial activities by partitioning money into mental accounts, which are used to make spending decisions. Examples of mental accounts might include an “entertainment account” or an “education account,” each representing money
Experiments in human development attempt to identify the influence of variables or events on human behavior. These experiments contribute to the shared knowledge of the community that seeks to understand human development by describing the course of human development, predicting how individual humans will develop, and arranging optimal environments for growth. Before experiments can contribute
Confession evidence is highly potent, and its incriminating effects are difficult to erase. This research paper describes the impact of confessions on jury verdicts, examines three concerns about the way in which juries evaluate confession evidence, and considers the steps that can be taken to ensure that jurors assess such evidence appropriately. In cases where
Mere Ownership Effect Definition The mere ownership effect refers to an individual’s tendency to evaluate an object more favorably merely because he or she owns it. The endowment effect is a related phenomenon that concerns the finding that sellers require more money to sell an object than buyers are willing to pay for it. Taken
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders characterizes generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) as a problem attributable largely to excessive worry. In recognition of the heightened levels of worry and anxiety common to all anxiety disorders, some have considered GAD a core anxiety disorder. Although worry is central to GAD, additional necessary features for the
The CSI effect refers to the belief that jurors’ expectations about forensic evidence at trial are changing due to the popularity of crime investigation programming such as CBS’s CSI: Crime Scene Investigation. Much of the support for this effect comes from anecdotal evidence. The limited empirical evidence on this topic indicates that CSI may influence
Naive Cynicism Definition Naive cynicism is the tendency of laypeople to expect other people’s judgments will have a motivational basis and therefore will be biased in the direction of their self-interest. We expect that others will see things in ways that are most flattering to them, while thinking that our own opinions and beliefs are
The concept of the generation gap is one that has become part of our cultural vernacular. Reputedly coined by renowned anthropologist Margaret Mead, the simplest definition of the concept is the differentiation (or gap) of values, attitudes, or behaviors between members of an older generation and a younger generation. Typically, the concept of the generation
Damage awards function as a remedy for wrongdoing in civil lawsuits; they constitute money awarded to an injured party as compensation for injuries or other losses (“compensatory” damages). They can also serve as punishment for the wrongdoer (“punitive” damages). These awards are made mostly by juries and occasionally by judges who previously determined that a
Naive Realism Definition Naive realism describes people’s tendency to believe that they perceive the social world “as it is”—as objective reality—rather than as a subjective construction and interpretation of reality. This belief that one’s perceptions are realistic, unbiased interpretations of the social world has two important implications. First, that other, rational people will have similar
The term genotype refers to the specific genetic makeup, unique genetic constitution, or hereditary “blueprint” of an organism. An individual’s genotype is his or her genetic identity. A genotype can mean the full complement of genes that an organism possesses, or it can refer to the DNA bases at only one position in the genome.
In a majority of U.S. courts, particularly criminal courts, jury verdicts are required to be unanimous. Occasionally, however, juries are unable to reach a consensus. In such instances, judges will sometimes prompt juries to reach a decision by issuing an instruction that is often referred to as the “dynamite charge.” The dynamite charge stresses the
Omission Neglect Definition Omission neglect refers to insensitivity to missing information of all types—including unmentioned or unknown options, alternatives, features, properties, characteristics, possibilities, and events. When people fail to think about what they do not know, they underestimate the importance of missing information, and this leads people to form strong opinions even when the available
The Gerontological Society of America (GSA) was founded in 1945 to promote scientific study of aging and to encourage exchange of the resulting knowledge among scientists, teachers, practitioners, and decision makers in an aging society. GSA was the first scientific organization in the United States to promote a distinctive interdisciplinary focus on the study of
As the average life span increases, the population of elders involved in the court system grows. Thus, there has been some concern about how elders are treated when in court, in prison, and on death row. Elders on Trial Although research is limited, some studies have shown that elders are perceived to be less credible
Overconfidence Definition Overconfidence refers to the phenomenon that people’s confidence in their judgments and knowledge is higher than the accuracy of these judgments. To investigate this effect, the subjective judgment of confidence in the correctness of a set of answers is compared with the objective accuracy of these answers. In a typical study on overconfidence
From the time of conception onward, humans are constantly aging, developing, and getting older. Although not a new area of investigation and study, gerontology (operationally defined as the scientific study of the aging process) has until recently taken a back seat to many other areas of scientific investigation. One reason for this is that many
Expert psychological testimony comes in many types and concerns a vast array of subjects. Psychological expertise ranges widely both in scientific subject areas and the breadth of the legal landscape covered. Indeed, there are few, if any, legal contexts in which expert testimony on psychology does not sometimes have an impact. This is not surprising
Planning Fallacy Definition The planning fallacy refers to a specific form of optimistic bias wherein people underestimate the time that it will take to complete an upcoming task even though they are fully aware that similar tasks have taken longer in the past. An intriguing aspect of this phenomenon is that people simultaneously hold both
Arnold Lucius Gesell was among the first psychologists to establish quantitative measures of child development, based on his extensive observations of New Haven children, whom he filmed through oneway mirrors in the laboratory. Born 1880 in Alma, Wisconsin, a small town that still refers to him as the most famous graduate of Alma High School
Expert psychological testimony comes to court in a variety of forms and, in particular, at a couple of levels of generality. It often involves general research findings that, although relevant to a particular case, also transcend that case. General research findings will sometimes be used in the establishment of applicable law and decided by judges but
Pluralistic Ignorance Definition Pluralistic ignorance occurs when people erroneously infer that they feel differently from their peers, even though they are behaving similarly. As one example, imagine the following scenario: You are sitting in a large lecture hall listening to an especially complicated lecture. After many minutes of incomprehensible material, the lecturer pauses and asks
Giftedness can be conceived as unusually high ability or potential in any domain. Views of giftedness are culturally shaped, and society deems which domains are recognized, valued, and nurtured. Historically, the term gifted was primarily applied to high intellectual abilities, although it has also been applied to high ability in areas such as the arts.
Expert psychological testimony, like any testimony, must meet certain criteria or standards for admissibility before it is allowed into court. Although the admissibility of expert evidence was initially governed by the general acceptance standard set in Frye v. United States (1923), more recent standards, including the Federal Rules of Evidence, have shifted focus to an
Preference Reversals Definition Preference reversals refer to the observation that there are systematic changes in people’s preference order between options. Preference order refers to an abstract relation between two options. It is assumed that when an individual is presented with options A and B, he or she either prefers A to B or prefers B
Born in New York City, Carol Gilligan is a full professor at New York University in the School of Law and a visiting professor at the University of Cambridge affiliated with the Centre for Gender Studies. Gilligan received a bachelor’s degree in English literature at Swarthmore College, a master’s degree in clinical psychology from Radcliffe
Psychologists occasionally testify about the factors that influence eyewitness identification accuracy in criminal cases in which eyewitness identification is a pivotal issue. Considerable research has addressed the need for this testimony and its impact on the jury. Typically, the expert witness is trained in cognitive or social psychology and has published scholarly work about eyewitness
Prisoner’s Dilemma Definition Beyond any doubt, Prisoner’s Dilemma is the best-known situation in which self-interest and collective interest are at odds. The situation derives its name from the classic anecdote about two prisoners who were accused of robbing a bank. In this anecdote, the district attorney, unable to prove that the prisoners were guilty, created
Carol Gilligan was born on November 28, 1936, in New York City. She graduated from Swarthmore College in 1958, majoring in literature. She received her Masters in clinical psychology in 1960 from Radcliffe University and her PhD in social psychology from Harvard University in 1964. She began teaching at Harvard in 1967, becoming a full
Public Goods Dilemma Definition Public goods dilemma refers to a real-world decision whereby the outcome for any individual depends on the decisions of all involved parties. More specifically, these dilemmas are decisions in which individuals must weigh personal interests against the collective interest, which is typically a communal resource, a public good. Examples of Public
The term glass ceiling was introduced in the 1980s to refer to an informal but effective limit on how high women could rise in a work organization. This ceiling was “glass” in that women could see above this transparent barrier, and in fact might not realize it was there, until they found they could go
Recency Effect Definition The recency effect is an order of presentation effect that occurs when more recent information is better remembered and receives greater weight in forming a judgment than does earlier-presented information. Recency effects in social psychology have been most thoroughly studied in impression formation research. Typically, researchers investigate how impressions are formed on
Grade retention, also recognized as “being retained,” “being held back,” “nonpromotion,” and “flunking,” refers to the practice of requiring a student who has attended a given grade level for a full school year to remain at that same grade level in the subsequent school year. The practice of grade retention has become increasingly popular over
Representativeness Heuristic Definition According to some social psychologists, human beings have the tendency to be cognitive misers—that is, to limit their use of mental resources when they need to make a quick decision or when the issue about which they must make a decision is unimportant to them. People have several strategies they can use
Multigenerational families have increased in number because of the extended life span of individuals. This increased longevity also has led to an increase in the number of older adults in our communities. Census reports of the past decade identify adults age 85 and older as the fastest growing population group. There has been an approximate
Risk Taking Definition When people take risks, they engage in behaviors that could lead to negative consequences such as physical injury, social rejection, legal troubles, or financial losses. Behaviors that are more likely to lead to such outcomes are considered riskier than behaviors that are less likely to lead to such outcomes. Regardless of the
The Gray Panthers is a national organization founded in 1970 by social activist and educator Maggie Kuhn in response to insidious ageism within American culture. Ageism is the negative stereotyping, stigmatization, and segregation of people based on age. Through the national organization and coordination of local networks, the Gray Panthers functions as an intergenerational advocacy
Risky shift occurs when people change their decisions or opinions to become more extreme and risky when acting as part of a group, compared with acting individually; this is one form of the phenomenon known as group polarization. The result is that group decisions are bolder and more adventurous than those made by individuals alone
Gross motor skills have traditionally referred to motor activities that move the body through the environment or use the large muscles of the torso, arms, and legs to transport or displace an object in some way. By contrast, fine motor skills have typically been described as involving the arms, hands, and fingers in acts of
Satisficing Definition Satisficing refers to making a decision with the goal of satisfying or fulfilling some acceptable minimum requirement (instead of choosing the best option). Decision makers who adopt a satisficing strategy do not evaluate all the available alternatives. Instead, they accept the first “good enough” option that they encounter. Satisficing is thought to be
Any unconditioned response that is elicited in response to an unconditioned stimulus will show habituation if the stimulus is repeated. That is, measures of the response will show orderly decreases in magnitude as the stimulus is repeatedly applied. Habituation can be seen in the withdrawal responses of protozoa to tactile stimulation, in the freezing-defensive responses
Simulation Heuristic Definition The simulation heuristic focuses on what occurs after a person has experienced an event in his or her life. According to the simulation heuristic, a person imagines possible simulations or alternative outcomes to events that he or she encounters. The imagined alternatives, in turn, affect how a person feels about the event
Granville Stanley Hall is commonly known as the father of American developmental psychology, and his contributions in the developmental field and in psychology in general are numerous and invaluable. Born in Ashfield, Massachusetts, Hall grew up on a farm and was initially intending to become a minister. He graduated from Williams College and studied theology
Simultaneous Choice Definition The term simultaneous choice is mostly used in contrast to sequential choice. Both terms refer to the selection of a series of items for subsequent consumption, for example, when selecting a set of three soft drinks to be consumed one per day during the next three days. Simultaneous choice is the choice
Harry Israel was born in Fairfield, a small rural town in Iowa. He was the third of four boys and grew up in a family that placed a premium on the value of education. Upon completion of his bachelor and doctoral degrees at Stanford University, his advisor convinced Harry to change his surname from Israel
Social Dilemmas Definition A social dilemma is a situation in which a group of people must work together to achieve some goal that no one person could easily meet alone. However, if the goal is met, all group members, even those who did not help toward the goal, can enjoy its benefits. This feature introduces
Crimes against people and property can be motivated by many different things, including greed, anger, and a desire for revenge. The subset of crimes known as hate crimes are those unlawful acts that are motivated by prejudice against a group that the victim is believed to belong to or identify with. U.S. law classifies crimes
Inspired by cognitive dissonance theory, hundreds of experiments have demonstrated that following a difficult decision, compared with an easy one, individuals change their attitudes to be more consistent with their decisions. That is, following a decision, individuals evaluate the chosen alternative more positively and the rejected alternative more negatively than they did before the decision.
Head Start is the oldest, largest, and most widely known early intervention program for young children and families living in poverty. Created in 1965 as an 8-week summer program, it soon grew to a full-year preschool program. Head Start center and home-based programs reside in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and
Sunk Cost Definition Sunk cost refers to money, time, or effort that has already been spent on a particular endeavor and that cannot be recovered. Economic principles dictate that sunk costs should not be considered when making decisions about whether to continue one’s present course of action or to divert resources elsewhere. Such decisions rationally
Health insurance often seems confusing and can be difficult to navigate for even the most knowledgeable consumer. It is one of the most talked about topics in political elections and has received considerable media attention because of the rules and restrictions placed on people who have insurance and the plight of the growing numbers of
Visceral Factors Definition Visceral factors are states such as hunger, thirst, sexual desire, drug cravings, physical pain, and fervent emotion that influence how much goods and actions are valued. When experiencing a visceral state, people focus primarily on goals associated with their current state and downplay the importance of other goals. For example, when a person
Hemophilia is a blood disorder characterized by unusually low levels of clotting factor, which prevents normal blood coagulation. As a result, people with hemophilia bleed for longer periods of time but not at a faster than normal rate. It is a recessive genetic disorder that is carried on the X chromosome, and so it affects
Affect Definition Affect refers to the positive or negative personal reactions or feelings that we experience. Affect is often used as an umbrella term to refer to evaluations, moods, and emotions. Affect colors the way we see the world and how we feel about people, objects, and events. It also has an important impact on
Heterosexuality is ubiquitous to modern Western sensibilities. It is often seen as the natural, timeless, and logical arrangement of the mating pair bond. For most people, trying to describe the role of heterosexuality in life is like trying to describe walking upright or using opposable thumbs; you never really think about it until it is
Affect-as-Information Definition How do we know whether or not we approve of some action or like some person? According to the affect-as-information hypothesis, our feelings provide such information. Just as our smiles and frowns provide information about our reactions to others, our positive and negative feelings provide such information to our-selves. Like many psychological processes
Eileen Mavis Hetherington is Professor of Psychology, Emeritus, at the University of Virginia. Her distinguished career of more than 50 years is highlighted by contributions to research on childhood psychopathology, personality and social development, and stress and coping, but she is perhaps best known for her work on the effects of divorce and remarriage on
Affect Heuristic Definition A judgment is said to be based on a heuristic when a person assesses a specified target attribute (e.g., the risk of an approaching stranger in the street) by substituting a related attribute that comes quickly to mind (e.g., intuitive feelings of fear or anxiety) for a more complex analysis (e.g., detailed
High blood pressure (hypertension) is a sustained elevation of blood pressure greater than 140/90 mm Hg. With hypertension, the pressure within the arteries of the body is too high and causes damage to the eyes, kidneys, brain, and heart. The damage can be prevented with proper treatment, consisting of diet, exercise, weight loss, and sometimes
Affect Infusion Definition Affect infusion occurs when feelings (moods, emotions) exert an invasive and subconscious influence on the way people think, form judgments, and behave in social situations. Affect can influence both the content of thinking and behavior (informational effect), and the process and style of thinking (processing effects). Some examples of affect infusion include
Tremendous advances in medical technologies and the emergence of neonatology as a medical specialty have led to the increase in the number of surviving high-risk infants. The developmental status of these children is of great concern to a wide range of professionals. Special educators, school psychologists, developmental psychologists, early childhood educators, and speech and language
Ambivalence Definition People like some things yet dislike others, love some people but hate others, and sometimes feel happy and other times sad. From this perspective, feelings— generally referred to as affect, which includes such phenomena as attitudes, emotions, and moods—work in much the same way as temperature. Just as temperature falls along a simple
At the beginning of the 21st century, colleges and universities in the United States are among the most visible and highly regarded in the world—providing individuals from all walks of life the opportunity to pursue higher education. From the founding of Harvard College in 1636 to the present, the twin pillars of change and innovation
David Valentine Tiedeman received his B.A. in psychology at Union College in 1941. Tiedeman would receive a master’s from the University of Rochester in 1943 and go on to Harvard to complete degrees in educational measurement both his Ed.M. in 1948 and an Ed.D. in 1949. While at Harvard, Tiedeman was mentored by the renowned
Transactional analysis (TA) is a therapeutic approach that emphasizes the ritualistic transactions of interactions and behaviors that occur between individuals. Developed by Eric Berne in the 1950s, TA focuses on social interaction, emotional well-being, and responsibility, involving life scripts that people develop based upon early childhood experiences. TA is an understandable, sophisticated structural analysis of
The concepts of transference and countertransference, together with that of transference neurosis, properly belong to the theory and practice of psychoanalysis. In Sigmund Freud’s original formulations they were inextricably intertwined with his propositions about the determinants of development and neuroses, and they have very limited meaning outside that framework. Where they are so used, their
Emotional development comprises the emergence of the experience, expression, understanding, and regulation of emotions from birth and the growth and change in these capacities throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The development of emotions occurs in transaction with neural, cognitive, and behavioral development and emerges within a particular social and cultural context. Emotional Development In Infancy
Beliefs Definition Beliefs are generally defined as convictions that things held in the mind are true. If individuals think particular tenets are likely to be true, they are said to believe them. If individuals think particular tenets are unlikely to be true, they are said to disbelieve them. In their most basic form, beliefs are
As discussed previously, forensic psychology is the interaction between the clinical practice of psychology and the law. Insanity and competency are two legal issues that examine specific mental health aspects of clinical practice within the legal context. Courts utilize forensic psychologists as experts to assist in arriving at legal decisions for both, but the focus
Brainwashing Definition Brainwashing is a term that was adopted by the press to describe the indoctrination of U.S. prisoners of war (POWs) during the Korean War. Social scientists now recognize brainwashing as a form of severe indoctrination marked by physical and psychological stress, intense social pressure, and a variety of persuasion techniques. This form of
Emotional intelligence is a relatively new concept within the psychological community and was introduced to the general public by Daniel Goleman’s 1995 popular publication, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Emotional intelligence, also known as EQ or EI, is characterized as the psychological faculties used to identify, understand, and apply personal and
Sex offenders are increasingly the focus of risk assessment and a variety of other legislative and clinical attempts at reducing sexual violence. A sexual offender is an individual who has committed a sexual act that involves the use of force or a threat against a nonconsenting person. Sexual offenses can include a wide range of
Dual Attitudes Definition Dual attitudes refer to the idea that an individual can have two different attitudes about something—both an implicit attitude and an explicit attitude. The implicit attitude refers to an intuitive response or gut reaction, whereas the explicit attitude refers to a more deliberate, thought-out response. Thus, a past love may evoke both
Defining The Concept The term empathy was originally coined in 1909 by E. B. Titchener who, drawing on the work of Theodore Lipps, employed it in his Experimental Psychology of the Thought Processes as a translation of the German word Einfühlung, a technical term in German aesthetics that literally means “to feel one’s way into.”
Another topic related to psychopathy and central to clinical forensic psychology is risk assessment. Risk assessment was more commonly referred to as violence prediction because the primary focus for forensic psychologists was predicting whether a particular person would become violent. However, risk assessment is not simply about making a forced choice about whether a particular
Effort Justification Definition Effort justification is the idea that when people make sacrifices to pursue a goal, the effort is often rationalized by elevating the attractiveness of the goal. In other words, people sometimes come to love what they suffer to achieve. The effort justification hypothesis is derived from cognitive dissonance, one of the best-known
The “empty nest” refers to the physical and psychological change in the family when a child leaves home or goes away to college. For about 18 years, parents have invested themselves in the emotionally consuming process of raising a family—and suddenly one day the children leave home. As the nest empties, a chapter of parenting
Psychopathy is a term that has been around for a long time, but it is only in the last 30 years that it has become a topic of so much interest in forensic psychology. In fact, one could argue that psychopathy is the focus of more current research in psychology than is almost any other
Elaboration Likelihood Model Definition The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion is a theory about how attitudes are formed and changed. This theory organizes the many different attitude change processes under a single conceptual umbrella. The ELM was created to provide a framework to help explain the many seemingly inconsistent findings in the persuasion literature.
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that disrupt the normal functioning of hormonal systems or the balance of hormones. There are currently no standardized tests to determine whether or not a chemical should be classed as an endocrine disruptor. Chemicals that alter either the levels of estrogens, androgens, or thyroid hormones or the body’s response to them
There are many opportunities for positive interaction between the fields of psychology and the law; however, this marriage of two disciplines does not come without some inherent conflict. Judges and attorneys are trained to look at human behavior in a way that is quite different from the perspective of psychologists. It is this difference that
Attitudes provide summary assessments that assist in decisions about how to interact with the world. An attitude is an association between a concept and an evaluation—positive or negative, favorable or unfavorable, desirable or undesirable. Attitudes help guide people’s judgment and behavior. Should I approach the bear with the big claws or run away? Should I
English as a Second Language (ESL) is a program in which nonnative speakers of English who live in a country where English is the native language work toward the acquisition of English as a second language. It is referred to as ESL even though English may be the student’s third or fourth language. When English
The nature and scope of trial consultant training reflect the array of services that are offered to clients, such as jury research, presentation strategies, and assistance with exhibits. There are no standard academic or professional requirements for trial consultants. Their training varies considerably across the profession, but it tends to involve a relevant academic background
Sometimes people’s attitudes predict their behavior and sometimes they don’t. Most people have a positive attitude toward donating money to charity, but they don’t tend to give their hard-earned cash away whenever a charitable organization requests it. Similarly, many White individuals harbor a negative prejudice toward Blacks, but they often treat many Black individuals they
Epilepsy is a medical condition characterized by spontaneous recurrent seizures. Seizures are brief neurological symptoms resulting from abnormal discharge or “firing” of neural brain cells in the cerebral cortex. Neurons normally transmit information by firing a single short discharge that is conducted from one neuron to another. Seizures result when the discharge is prolonged or
Forensic psychology was formally recognized as a specialty by the American Psychological Association (APA) in 2001 (through the Committee for Recognition of Specialties and Proficiencies in Professional Psychology). The basic elements of specialty training in professional psychology are graduate education (doctoral program), internship, and postdoctoral training. This model of training is pyramidal in structure: Students
Motivated Reasoning Definition Motivated reasoning is a form of reasoning in which people access, construct, and evaluate arguments in a biased fashion to arrive at or endorse a preferred conclusion. The term motivated in motivated reasoning refers to the fact that people use reasoning strategies that allow them to draw the conclusions they want to
Equilibration—the process of finding equilibrium or balance—is Piaget’s explanation for how learning grows. Individuals try to balance their present understandings with new events or data they encounter that conflict with what they know, while attempting to maintain stability. When individuals encounter something foreign to their learning structures, the imbalance created is restored through equilibration. Piaget
Diplomates in forensic psychology are dually certified by the American Board of Forensic Psychology (ABFP) and its parent organization, the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP), as experts in applying the science and profession of psychology to U.S. law and the U.S. legal system. The certification process consists of four distinct phases: initial application, written
Polarization Processes Definition Like the North Pole and the South Pole or the opposite ends of a magnet, poles represent extreme end-points, and polarization indicates movement toward those extremes. In psychological terms, polarization processes describe movement in individuals’ views toward opposite extremes. For example, imagine a group of individuals that includes both moderate supporters and
Erectile dysfunction (ED), sometimes referred to by its old name, impotence, refers to a condition where a man has difficulty obtaining and/or maintaining an erection sufficient for sexual intercourse. It can range from occasional difficulty keeping a firm erection to the total inability to obtain any erection at all. The best estimates suggest that between
Programs that specialize in the training of forensic psychology scientists face specific training challenges. In order to perform useful forensic psychological research on a topic, a forensic training program must first teach its students how to identify the questions that the law needs answered by psychological science. For example, in the case of McCleskey v.
Values Definition The term value has two related yet distinct meanings. The value of an object or activity is what the object or activity is worth to a person or community; this is the economic or decision-making meaning of value. In its social-psychological meaning, by contrast, a value is an abstract, desirable end state that
Erik Erikson was born near Frankfurt, Germany, and went on to make several important contributions to the field of life span development. After graduating from high school, Erikson traveled around Europe and studied art in Germany. At the age of 25, he was invited to Vienna to teach children whose parents were studying with Sigmund
The timing of forensic training raises a fundamental training issue. As previously noted, forensic training can occur predoctorally, during internship, postdoctorally, through continuing education programs, through on-the-job training, or through self-directed reading. All may be perfectly appropriate for providing forensic psychological expertise, but we have no data to know what kind of impact these training
Adaptive Unconscious Definition Automatic processes are processes that are unconscious, unintentional, uncontrollable, and efficient (i.e., they do not require cognitive resources). The term adaptive unconscious refers to the fact that these automatic processes evolved because they are beneficial to people who rely on them. People have to process extensive amounts of information on a daily
Estrogen is a generic term for a class of steroid hormones that includes 17β-estradiol, estrone, and estriol. Estrogens are synthesized from the hormone testosterone by the enzyme aromatase. Although both men and women produce estrogens, women have more of the aromatase enzyme, so they produce much more estrogens than men. Estrogens are produced in the
Forensic psychology education requires both didactic and experiential training components. Didactic courses are necessary because they provide the intensive opportunity to acquire the scientific and practice knowledge base underlying forensic psychology. Simply apprenticing under a practitioner might lead to a narrow perception of what forensics entails and a skill set that is limited to what that
Apparent Mental Causation Definition The theory of apparent mental causation outlines the conditions under which people experience a sense of consciously willing their actions. Although people often feel that their conscious thoughts cause their actions, this feeling is illusory, as both their actions and their experience of willing them arise independently from unconscious sources. People
The study of behavioral development involves the use of both human research subjects of all ages and animals from chicken embryos to monkeys and apes. Research strategies exist on a continuum that ranges from nonobtrusive naturalistic observation to the direct experimental manipulation of the subject’s internal or external environment. As the range moves from observation
Doctoral programs in forensic psychology are the most prominent educational path for training scholars, providing training for many students interested in the core areas of these disciplines. There are a variety of training models aimed at educating students in both disciplines, but there is lack of agreement about the best model. However, recommendations have been
Approach-Avoidance Conflict Definition Approach means moving toward something. Avoidance means moving away from it. Obviously you can’t move toward and away from the same thing at the same time. Approach-avoidance conflict arises when a goal has both positive and negative aspects, and thus leads to approach and avoidance reactions at the same time. Kurt Lewin
Ethnic cleansing has two central elements. It is a cultural and political project to construct particular groups of people as dirt and other groups of people as legitimate citizens. It is a military project to remove (or cleanse) the “dirt” in order to allow the “legitimate” citizens to live in an “unpolluted” territory. People are
The field of forensic psychology has witnessed tremendous growth in the past 40 years in both academic and professional realms. While many of the early clinicians engaged in forensic practice did not receive specialized training prior to assuming their role within a forensic setting, graduate training in forensic psychology, or psychology and law, has attempted
Authenticity Definition Authenticity generally reflects the extent to which an individual’s core or true self is operative on a day-to-day basis. Psychologists characterize authenticity as multiple interrelated processes that have important implications for psychological functioning and well-being. Specifically, authenticity is expressed in the dynamic operation of four components: awareness (i.e., self-understanding), unbiased processing (i.e., objective
In our increasingly diverse society, issues of race and ethnicity have become of utmost interest to psychologists. Ethnic identity refers to a person’s social identity within a larger context based on membership in a cultural or social group. Research about ethnic identity has come from various disciplines, including psychology, sociology, and anthropology and thus has
Given the different approaches to achieving training goals, what are the specific degree and nondegree training opportunities in forensics that are available to trainees? As it turns out, there are quite a few. PhD/PsyD Programs As noted in the prior section, few schools that offer forensic training do so through a program devoted to forensic
Auto-Motive Model Definition The auto-motive model as proposed by John Bargh in 1990 describes the complete sequence of goal pursuit— that is, reaching a goal—as a process taking place outside of conscious awareness and control. The term motive is chosen to encompass goals, motives, and values, yet in most cases, research has focused on goals
Ethology is a branch of biology that focuses on animal behavior. It originated in European zoology in the 1930s and revolved around the study of instinctive and fixed-action patterns of behavior. Ethologists study the animal’s behavior in its natural environment rather than in a laboratory. Ethology paved the way for comparative psychology. Specifically, ethologists and
The Classification of Violence Risk (COVR) is an interactive software program designed to estimate the risk that an acute psychiatric patient will be violent to others over the next several months. Using a laptop or a desktop computer, COVR guides the evaluator through a brief chart review and a 10-minute interview with the patient. COVR
The term autonomy literally means “self-governing” and thus connotes regulation by the self (auto). Its opposite, heteronomy, refers to regulation by “otherness” (heteron) and thus by forces “other than,” or alien to, the self. In short, autonomy concerns the extent to which a person’s acts are self-determined instead of being coerced or compelled. Within the
The term euthanasia often elicits a variety of responses from individuals. The reactions may be related to one’s understanding of what euthanasia is, one’s experience with end-of-life decision making, one’s religious or spiritual belief system, or any number of other factors. This review will attempt to clarify some of the definitions associated with different types