The Danger Assessment Instrument (DA), in its current form, is a 20-item actuarial test designed to assess the risk of serious or lethal intimate partner violence. It is intended for use with adult women who have suffered physical abuse at the hands of men who are their current or former intimate partners. Although originally developed
Behavioral Contagion Definition Behavioral contagion is the tendency for people to repeat behavior after others have performed it. People very often do what others do. Sometimes we choose to imitate others, for example, by wearing the same type of clothes as our friends. Most of the time, however, we are not aware of the fact
As we grow, our brain continues to develop through adolescence. We know that while different areas in the brain are associated with various abilities, it is with the frontal lobes, located in the newest, outer layer of the brain and which Dr. Elkhonon Goldberg, a leading expert in the field, describes as the instrument, and
The Domestic Violence Screening Instrument (DVSI and DVSI-R versions) was designed to assess the risk of repeated domestic violence in the future on the basis of information available at the time of use. The DVSI was originally created by the Division of Probation Services in Colorado. It was crafted as a short, easy criminal records
We have all heard the term choking under pressure before. In the sports arena we talk about the bricks in basketball when the game-winning free throw is missed. In academic domains, we refer to cracking in important test taking situations. But what exactly do these terms mean and why do less-than-optimal performances occur—especially when incentives
Exercise is commonly associated with aerobic activity or sustained activity over a period of time that utilizes and strengthens the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems. Aerobic exercise involves repetitive movement of large muscle groups and increased respiration rate. Anaerobic exercise, in contrast, generally involves short duration movements of smaller muscle groups and strength-training exercise, helping to
The Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) is a 12-item symptom-construct rating scale designed for use by expert observers to assess the lifetime presence and severity of symptoms of psychopathic personality disorder. It was derived from the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised, or PCL-R. The PCL:SV is intended for use with adult males and females in a
Delay of Gratification Definition Delay of gratification requires resisting the impulse to take an immediately available reward, in the hopes of obtaining a more valued reward in the future. For example, a person who wakes up feeling tired can make the impulsive choice of going back to sleep or can delay gratification by getting up
An experiment is a scientific study designed to uncover information about cause and effect through examining the influence of changes in some variable or condition on a measured outcome. In a true experiment, changes in one or more independent variables are tested and the resulting effects on one or more dependent variables are assessed. For
The construct of psychopathy as applied to children and adolescents has received increasing attention in recent years. Many researchers and clinicians believe that psychopathic traits and behaviors are first manifested early in life, which has led to efforts to develop measures to identify psychopathic traits early in development. The Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV)
Ego Depletion Definition Ego depletion refers to the loss of a personal resource (and associated breakdown in performance) due to the previous exertion of self-control or other effortful and willful acts of the self. Ego depletion may be especially important in understanding why self-control fails and what the processes are that underlie self-control. The model
To understand the function of an experimental group, one must first know what an experiment is, since that is the context in which experimental groups are found. An experiment is one of the techniques available to researchers in their study of human development. This research method attempts to determine the effect of one (or more)
The Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (2nd edition, PCL-R) is a 20-item rating scale for the measurement of the clinical construct of psychopathy. Although it was designed for use in research, its explanatory and predictive features have led to its widespread use within the criminal justice system. This entry describes the development of the PCL-R, its psychometric
Extrinsic Motivation Definition Extrinsic motivation is the desire to do something because of the rewards and reinforcements it brings. In other words, one would probably not do the behavior if one didn’t get something, later, for doing it. Extrinsic motivation is often contrasted with intrinsic motivation, in which behavior occurs because the experience of doing
Experimental method is a method in which a variable (independent variable that is hypothesized as a cause; IV) is manipulated by an experimenter and the corresponding change in another variable (dependent variable that is hypothesized as an effect; DV) is observed. To determine whether the change in the DV is caused by the IV, at
The HCR-20 Violence Risk Assessment Scheme is a 20-item violence risk assessment tool, accompanied by a 97-page user’s manual. It is intended to structure clinical decisions about the risk for violence posed by adult forensic psychiatric patients, civil psychiatric patients, and criminal offenders (whether mentally disordered or not). The HCR-20 is relevant to the field
The feedback loop concept has several sources, and there are several different ways to think about it. One way is to think about the meaning of cause and effect. People often think about variable A causing outcome B to happen, and that being the end of it—a straight line from cause to effect. The logic
Most Americans live in nuclear families, which consist of parent(s) and unmarried children, or simply two adults related by marriage or equivalent partnership. At the same time, most Americans recognize other family members outside their nuclear families. They may be grandparents, uncles and aunts, married siblings, cousins, nephews and nieces, married children, grandchildren, or in-laws.
Goals Definition Goals are a form of self-regulation adopted by humans to achieve specific aims. By focusing people’s attention, goals facilitate responses that are compatible with people’s objectives. Although the behavior of lower animals is controlled by biological mechanisms, human functioning is more flexible. Humans have the ability to regulate their responses beyond biologically based
The Jail Screening Assessment Tool (JSAT) is a screening tool developed for the purpose of identifying mentally disordered offenders in jails and prisons. The JSAT is administered by a mental health professional during a brief interview. Initial studies support the JSAT’s validity and use as an effective screening device to identify inmates’ mental health needs.
Extinction is a reductive procedure used to decrease the occurrence of a given behavior. Specifically, extinction involves withholding reinforcement for a behavior that previously received reinforcement. For example, consider the case of a teacher who falls into the habit of laughing at students’ jokes. The teacher is reinforcing “joking” behavior by providing positive teacher attention
Guilty Pleasures Definition Guilty pleasures are activities with short-term payoffs that are positive for a person but with long-term negative consequences. For example, reading a trashy magazine can be rewarding in the short term because it is fun, but it can be more negative in the long term if your friends think less of you
Violence risk assessment is now widely assumed by policy makers and the public to be a core skill of the mental health professions and plays a pivotal role in mental health law throughout the world. Dangerousness to others is a principal standard for inpatient commitment, outpatient commitment, and commitment to a forensic hospital. The imposition
Alfred Kinsey sent shockwaves though American society in 1948 when he reported that about half of all married men had sex with someone other than their wives during their married life. In 1953, Kinsey reported that about a quarter of women had extramarital sex by their 40s. Although Kinsey’s sampling methods have been questioned, other
Habits Definition Habits are learned dispositions to repeat past responses. They develop because many behavioral sequences (e.g., one’s morning coffee-making routine) are performed repeatedly in essentially the same context and in much the same order. When responses and context cues repeatedly occur together, the potential exists for associations to form between these various elements. Once
The Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool-Revised (MnSOST-R) is a 16-item, “actuarial” risk assessment tool initially developed for the Minnesota Department of Corrections (MDOC) to provide empirically based estimates of risk for sexual recidivism for incarcerated male sex offenders. Indices of reliability have ranged from .76 to .86 across four studies and have generally been .80
What Is Failure To Thrive? From the day a baby is born, parents will focus their attention on the child’s growth and development; their major preoccupation will be connected with the baby’s nutrition, health, growth, and contentment. Parents will be eager to see how much weight the baby gains, how well the baby feeds, how
Home-Field Advantage Definition The home-field advantage refers to the tendency for sports performers to win more often when competing at their home facility. Studies of professional, collegiate, and high school sports have consistently found that home performers defeat visiting performers in more than half of total games played. The aggregated winning percentages of home performers
The Novaco Anger Scale (NAS) is a self-report questionnaire with Cognitive, Arousal, and Behavioral subscales that constitute a 48-item NAS Total score. It has a separate 12-item Anger Regulation subscale. This questionnaire is designed to index a person’s disposition for anger, which is a risk factor for violence and a dynamic variable amenable to treatment.
F als e memories is a broad term used to refer to various aspects of memory errors and distortions that involve not only misremembering specific aspects or details of our experiences but also remembering events that never took place at all. False memories can range from common everyday errors such as when you clearly remember
A goal intention specifies a desired future state in the form of “I intend to perform/achieve Z!” (e.g., to exercise frequently/to be thin). However, merely setting a goal, or wanting very much to achieve it, is not sufficient to actually attain it. The correlation between goal intentions and actual behavior is quite low; the strength
The Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) is a widely used self-report measure designed to detect the principal personality traits of psychopathy. Revised in 2005 as the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised (PPI-R), it consists of 154 items arrayed in a 4-point Likert-type format. The PPI-R, like the original PPI, yields a Total score reflecting global psychopathy as well
Family size exerts an extremely strong and broad influence on development. The influence is strong in the sense that the effects are long-lasting. It is broad in the sense that it has an impact on many aspects of development, including both cognitive ability and extracognitive (e.g., personality) tendencies. The influence of family size is especially
Intrinsic Motivation Definition Intrinsic motivation is the desire to do something “just to be doing it.” That is, the experience of the behavior is reward enough, independent of any separable consequences that may follow. Intrinsic motivation often leads to or promotes flow, in which individuals become completely absorbed in some challenging activity, such as rock
Psychopathy treatment is a controversial and underinvestigated area of study. Many researchers and clinicians have suggested that the pervasive and manipulative nature of the disorder makes it unlikely that psychopathic individuals can benefit from treatment. It is of concern that the primary characteristics of psychopathy (e.g., manipulation, deceit, and shallow affect) result in low treatment
Significant societal shifts in the definitions and role expectations of fathers have occurred within the past 50 years. In the decades of the 1950s and 1960s, fathers’ role as the “breadwinners and disciplinarians” was the typical expectation; whereas in the decade of the 1970s, there were expectations that fathers would increase participation in the household responsibilities.
Ironic Processes Definition In almost all English dictionaries, one meaning of irony (i.e., that which is ironic) refers to an unexpected outcome or a surprising consequence. Social psychologists, however, reference ironic processes predicated upon the inner workings of the mind. Thus, ironic processes are mental processes. What is ironic is the nature of a person’s
The Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism, abbreviated as the RRASOR (pronounced like the cutting tool), is an actuarial scale designed to assess different levels of sexual recidivism risk for convicted sexual offenders. This scale was the first empirically validated actuarial instrument specifically designed for the assessment of sexual offense recidivism. As such, it
Maternal and fetal medicine (MFM) is the subspecialty within the field of obstetrics and gynecology that deals with the complications of pregnancy. The problems are varied but can fit into one of several categories: Maternal disease: either the disease or the treatment may affect the fetus or pregnancy (e.g., diabetes and hypertension). Disease arising as
Mental Control Definition Mental control refers to the ways in which people control their thoughts and emotions to remain in agreement with their goals. People engage in mental control when they suppress a thought, concentrate on a feeling or sensation, restrain an emotional response, or strive to maintain a mood. Mental control proves difficult for
Violence risk assessment is relevant to the field of law and psychology because it occurs at numerous junctures in the legal system, and it is one of the key areas of research and clinical practice in forensic psychology. This entry reviews two primary approaches to risk assessment: unstructured and structured. The former approach, sometimes also
During the prenatal period, a human develops from a single cell to a complex array of living tissues and structures. Every experience a prenatal organism has, and every substance it encounters, can potentially alter the course of development. This period of dramatic changes sets the stage for postnatal outcomes, from birth to death. The longest
To have an experience is not necessarily to know that one is having it. Situations such as suddenly realizing that one has not been listening to one’s spouse (despite nodding attentively) or catching oneself shouting, “I’m not angry,” illustrate that people sometimes fail to notice what is going on in their own heads. The intuition
Although clinical psychological assessment is generally expected to be specific to particular interventions with demonstrated efficacy, there is insufficient empirical evidence on which to prescribe clinical assessment practice with sex offenders. The best strategy is to examine interventions that target personal and circumstantial characteristics empirically related to commission of sex offenses or to recidivism among
F ine motor control refers to the ability to precisely move and position the limbs, extremities, and digits (especially the fingers). Examples of fine motor control include grasping an object between the thumb and forefinger, tying shoelaces, using a spoon to bring soup to the mouth, and typing. Fine motor control is essential to many
Mindfulness Definition What is mindfulness? Phenomenologically, it is the feeling of involvement or engagement. How do people achieve it? Learning to be mindful does not require meditation. It is the simple process of actively noticing new things. It doesn’t matter how smart or relevant the new distinctions are; just that they are novel for the
During the past 15 years, sex offender civil commitment laws have emerged that require some dangerous sex offenders to receive involuntary treatment in a secure facility after their criminal incarceration. Following an assessment of risk, sex offenders who are considered likely to re-offend are entitled to a trial with a judge or jury, where evidence
One cannot help but marvel at the accomplishments of a skilled pianist, athlete, or craftsman. Even those without exceptional proficiencies display remarkable abilities for fine motor control. As I am typing, my fingers are moving rapidly in varying order and with remarkable spatial and temporal precision. We all perform everyday tasks, such as tying our
Modeling of Behavior Definition Modeling is one way in which behavior is learned. When a person observes the behavior of another and then imitates that behavior, he or she is modeling the behavior. This is sometimes known as observational learning or social learning. Modeling is a kind of vicarious learning in which direct instruction need
Now primarily of historical interest, the Sex Offender Needs Assessment Rating (SONAR) was the first focused attempt to assess change in sexual offenders based on dynamic risk factors. Dynamic risk factors are personal skill deficits, predilections, and learned behaviors correlated with sexual recidivism that can be changed through a process of “effortful intervention” (i.e., treatment
This article is divided into three parts. In the first part we consider the historical background of the development of firearms, in particular the invention of gunpowder and its effect on social structures, particularly in Europe. In the second part we examine the nature of firearms and the categories that relate to their design and
Overjustification Effect Definition Overjustification occurs when play becomes work as a result of payment or other reward. More formally, it is the process by which intrinsic interest in some activity or behavior is supplanted through the presentation of an extrinsic reward. An activity that was once interesting in and of itself becomes less interesting and
Sex offender recidivism refers to the commission of a subsequent offense by a sex offender on release. The base rates of sexual offending have been found to range anywhere from 4% to 71% across studies. Some research findings suggest that the risk of re-offending may differ according to the sex offender typology. Furthermore, there is
Personality traits are patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are relatively enduring across the life span. The history of personality psychology has witnessed the birth of numerous traits and trait models of personality. In the 1980s and 1990s, the five-factor model (FFM) ascended to popularity and is considered by many personality psychologists to offer
Procrastination Definition Procrastination refers to wasting time before a deadline. The tendency to procrastinate involves putting off work that must be completed to attain a certain goal, such as watching television instead of working on a term paper. Procrastination has a negative impact on the quality of one’s work and is linked to a variety
The Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide (SORAG) is a 14-item actuarial scale designed to predict violent, including hands-on, sexual recidivism among men who have committed at least one previous hands-on sexual offense. The items on the scale are the following: Lived with both biological parents until age 16 Elementary school maladjustment History of alcohol problems
When you explain to your 5-year-old nephew that his mother is your sister, he stares at you in disbelief. His 7-year-old sister, however, immediately understands that her mother could also be someone’s sister. The difference between your nephew’s and niece’s understanding illustrates the dramatic changes in children’s cognitive functioning that occur between the ages of
To differentiate and integrate both the selection and realization of goals, the Rubicon model of action phases was developed. The model describes successful goal pursuit as solving four consecutive tasks: choosing between potential goals, planning the implementation of a chosen goal, acting on the chosen goal, and assessing what has been achieved by acting on
The Sexual Violence Risk-20 (SVR-20) is a set of structured professional judgment guidelines for conducting sexual violence risk assessments in criminal and civil forensic contexts. The SVR-20 is not a quantitative test that yields norm-referenced or criterion-referenced scores. Rather, it was developed as an aide memoire to help systematize the risk assessment of individuals who
John Flavell is credited with introducing the work of Piaget to American psychology and founding the field of metacognition. Flavell is a preeminent figure in modern developmental psychology. Born in Rockville, Massachusetts, he was educated at Northeastern and then earned a PhD in clinical psychology at Clark University. There, he was introduced to Heinz Werner’s
Let me tell you a simple story: John went to a restaurant. He ordered lobster. He paid the check and left. Now let me ask you some questions about your understanding of this story: What did John eat? Did he sit down? Whom did he give money to? Why? These questions are easy to answer.
The Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START) is a concise clinical guide for the dynamic assessment of short-term (i.e., weeks to months) risk for violence (to self and others) and treatability. START guides the assessor toward an integrated, balanced opinion to evaluate the client’s risk across seven domains: violence to others, suicide, self-harm, self-neglect
General fluid intelligence (Gf) refers to the ability to solve new problems, particularly when mentally effortful reasoning processes are required (such as inference, induction, abstraction, or synthesis). That is, Gf is involved in working out a novel solution, but not in simply remembering a previous solution. Gf is often contrasted with general crystallized intelligence (Gc)
Social Facilitation Definition Social facilitation refers to the general phenomenon that physical and cognitive performance is improved when other people are present (and possibly watching the performer). Psychologists use the term social facilitation/inhibition to indicate that performance is sometimes facilitated while being observed, and other times inhibited in the presence of others. The critical factor
Given the increasing number of spousal assaulters coming before the justice system, there is a growing need for risk assessment instruments to assist in making appropriate decisions at various stages of the proceedings. The Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA) guide is a manual that presents a set of recommendations for the assessment of spousal assault
The formal operational period is the fourth stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory. Formal operations incorporate, extend, and complete prior cognitive growth. Individuals begin to demonstrate formal operational characteristics between ages 11 and 15. In each stage, behavior is internalized into cognitive structures or schemes, thereby becoming repeatable and cognitively reversible. Individuals in the
Social Learning Definition Social learning refers to the learning that occurs in social contexts. More precisely, it refers to adaptive behavior change (learning) stemming from observing other people (or other animals), rather than learning from one’s own direct experience. People acquire and change social behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions from observing and imitating the actions
Foster care is defined as 24-hour substitute care for children outside of their own homes. It is generally conceived of as a time-limited living arrangement in which a child whose family is unable to maintain a sufficient child-rearing environment is placed with licensed caregivers until reunification with birth parents, adoption, or emancipation occurs. Foster care
Zeal Definition The term zeal came into common usage in reference to a sect of 1st-century-c.E. religious fanatics who were uncompromising in their opposition to Roman rule. Some of them carried daggers under their cloaks and killed anyone who did not fully support their views. Such extremism brought reprisals that ultimately crushed their sect. Accordingly
Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the leading cause of inherited mental retardation. It is caused by a change (mutation) in the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene located near the end of the X chromosome. This change is associated with a broad range of symptoms from speech delay and hyperactivity early in development to
How do talented children become elite adult athletes? Many young people start on the road toward becoming professional athletes, but few achieve this level of performance. The development of talent across a range of achievement domains, such as music, art, science, and sport, is a classic area of psychological research. Over the past 20 years
The depressive disorders are characterized by a persistent sad or unhappy mood. Sometimes these disorders are referred to as the unipolar depressions. The current version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text revision (DSM-I V-TR), published by the American Psychiatric Association (2000), identifies two primary depressive disorders: major depressive disorder
Development is systematic change over time. In humans, development is the sequence of physical and psychological changes that occurs as people age. Scholars have studied human development with regard to physical growth and maturation, motor functioning, perceptual capacities, cognitive capacities and skills, emotional repertoire and functioning, social relationships, moral capacities and tendencies, and psychopathology, among
The principle of developmental direction, one of Gesell’s five principles of maturation, assumes that development is not random but proceeds in an ordered and orderly fashion. The fact that development systematically proceeds from the head to the toes is a good example of how at any point a developmental trend will be more advanced in
The 9 months that precedes the birth of every child involves an amazing process. From the moment an egg is fertilized to the birth of an infant, so many complicated steps have occurred. In each step, there are many chances for errors to happen. Yet the surprise is not the number of children born with
A development quotient (DQ), most frequently used with infants or preschool children, is a numerical indicator of a child’s growth to maturity across a range of psychosocial competencies. Typically, these include areas such as personal social development, attention span, expressive and receptive language, visuoperceptual skills, fine and gross motor skills, and initiative and independence, together
Type I diabetes (insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus) is the most common endocrinology disorder, with onset typically occurring in adolescence. It is thought to be an autoimmune disorder that results in pancreatic beta cell destruction and the eventual loss of all insulin production. Insulin regulates blood levels of the sugar glucose and allows glucose to enter cells
Use And Application The DSM establishes diagnoses along five axes. These axes are as follows: Axis I: Clinical disorders Axis II: Personality disorders and mental retardation Axis III: General medical conditions Axis IV: Psychosocial environmental problems (rated with descriptive categories, such as economic problems associated with job loss) Axis V: Global assessment of functioning (rated
Dialectical thought involves seeking a synthesis of two or more seemingly opposing viewpoints. Throughout our lives, our views about how the world works change. New ideas can be learned through experiences with the world or through interpersonal interaction. As a person’s views on a topic, behavior, or experiences begin to conflict with one another, that
Dieting is the purposeful restriction of food intake as a means of losing weight, experiencing health benefits, and/or avoiding medical complications associated with excessive weight. Dieting is typically characterized by restrictive eating, where certain foods are limited or avoided entirely. Most diet plans are based on reducing any of the body’s macronutrients, such as fats
The term discipline is used variously in the literature. The more restrictive view of discipline is to define it as consequences for child misbehavior (e.g., using time out, spanking, removing privileges). The more comprehensive view of discipline, the view elaborated here, defines it as behaviors aimed at helping children learn how to behave. In this
Distance learning occurs when instructors and learners are separated by space and possibly time. Distance learning is part of a system of learning, teaching, communication, design, and management. The learning is interactive and may happen synchronously with instruction or asynchronously. The interaction among instructors, learners, and information is mediated by one or more technologies. Synonyms
Free association is an inadequate translation into English of the German term freier Einfall (meaning “free irruption”), which Sigmund Freud used to characterize ideas that irrupt into consciousness. Freud first described this irruption when he was investigating the causes of symptoms, parapraxes (slips of the tongue), and dreams. As a precondition of analyzing these phenomena
Natural and technological disasters are exceedingly stressful events that disrupt communities and families and traumatize individuals. Natural disasters are events beyond the control of human technology such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and tornadoes. Technological disasters include events such as explosions, floods due to dams breaking, industrial accidents, and nuclear power plant failures. Both natural and technological
In most cases, gay, lesbian, and bisexual (GLB) clients seek out counseling and therapy for the same reasons that heterosexual clients seek services, including relationship and family issues as well as concerns about work and social stressors. However, several therapeutic concerns specific to GLB sexual orientation include coming out and sexual identity development; anti-GLB and
Divorce, or the legal dissolution of marriage, is a common occurrence that affects millions of individuals and families throughout the world. The divorce rate in the United States and in much of the Western world is higher than it has ever been. Current estimates in the United States suggest that 50% to 67% of first
Group Therapy Definition Group therapy is a form of psychotherapy where one or more therapists treat a small group of clients together. Group therapy, like individual psychotherapy, is intended to help people who would like to improve their ability to cope with difficulties and problems in their lives. The therapist uses the emotional interactions of
Divorce mediation is the use of a third-party neutral mediator who assists parties in developing their own financial and parental agreements at the time of a divorce. The mediator, unlike a judge, has no authority to impose a decision on the parties. Mediation encourages the parties to communicate directly and fashion an agreement that suits
A widely accepted credo among medical and mental health professionals, attributed to the Greek physician and “father of medicine” Hippocrates, is Primum non nocere (“First, do no harm”). Yet, despite the signal importance of this credo, the field of psychotherapy has displayed relatively little interest in the question of potentially harmful psychological treatments. For example
Every family has conflict, but families differ in the ways they resolve arguments, disputes, and disagreements. For some families and couples, attempts to settle differences can escalate into domestic violence, typically perpetrated by one family member. Domestic violence is either the occurrence or a pattern of abusive and coercive behaviors, including physical, sexual, and psychological
Anthropologist Edward T. Hall introduced the construct of high-context (HC) communication to describe the degree to which people rely on contextual factors rather than the explicit and transmitted part of the message to derive meaning in communication. In HC communication, people derive meaning from mutually shared information of the context that is associated with a
Although an inadequate number of sperm contributes to approximately a third of all infertility, there had been little, if any, effective treatment for low sperm counts until the introduction of intracytoplasmic sperm injection in the late 1990s. As a result, the insemination of women with the sperm of anonymous donors, known as donor insemination (DI)
The origin of John L. Holland’s theory of vocational personalities can be traced back to his 1966 publication Psychology of Vocational Choice, which was followed by four subsequent editions of Making Vocational Choices. With each edition, Holland built a more comprehensive theory of career counseling and tackled new issues arising from the complex relationship between
Down syndrome is a chromosomal disorder that affects more than 350,000 U.S. citizens. Down syndrome ranks second to fragile X syndrome as the most frequent genetic cause of mental retardation. Although recognized by Edouard Seguin, a French physician and educator, as early as 1846, the first written description of the disorder was published in 1866
Homework assignments are tasks that clients in counseling and psychotherapy work on between treatment sessions. Examples include having a depressed client do one rewarding activity a day, having a couple practice active listening skills between sessions, asking a Navajo client exploring career options to talk to an elder on the topic, having an anxious client
Drunken driving motor vehicle crashes remain a leading cause of death and injury to people in the United States. In fact, motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death among people 16 to 24 years of age, and a substantial percentage are alcohol-related crashes. There were 17,419 alcohol-related automobile deaths in 2002, representing one
Humanistic approaches to counseling include a number of theoretical viewpoints. The dominant perspectives in this category are person-centered therapy and Gestalt therapy, which emerged in the 1950s and 1960s as alternatives to the prevailing approaches of the time, psychoanalysis and behaviorism. This entry will review person-centered therapy and Gestalt therapy, along with a more recent
One of the most significant transformations over the past 50 years has been the growing proportion of women earning an income from paid employment after marriage and childbirth. In the 1950s, more than 70% of American families maintained a “traditional” employment structure comprising a male breadwinner and an economically inactive wife. By the 1990s, this
While it is difficult to describe the nature of hypnosis scientifically, procedurally a therapist induces a trance, or deeply relaxed state, in a person through the means of suggestion of alterations of sensations, consciousness, and cognitions. As with the broader field of psychotherapy, there is an array of historical, theoretical, and technical assumptions that constitute
Although all people die, everyone’s dying process is unique. Many people think of dying as merely a physical process, but dying is an experience of the whole person and is influenced by a combination of physical, psychological, social, cultural, and spiritual factors. There are as many ways to die as there are to live, so
Counseling is a professional and dynamic relationship that requires clinicians to integrate and demonstrate their intellectual and interpersonal skills. This expectation may well have originated with Sigmund Freud, who required all who studied with him to submit to personal psychoanalysis as part of their academic and clinical training. Today, counselors and psychologists prepare for their
Dyslexia is a controversial term most often used to describe learners who fail to learn to read quickly, easily, or well, despite exposure to instruction. Historically, dyslexia was understood to be a permanent cognitive deficit, sometimes described as brain damage, minimal brain dysfunction, or congenital word blindness. Currently dyslexia is seen as a specific learning
The foundation on which individual therapy is based is the natural network of human social relationships. Discussions of personal life and personal concerns occur continually between family and friend dyads. Primary dyads for personal discussions include mother and daughter, sisters, husband and wife, mother and son, and friends. These universal networks of two people form
Early childhood is a period of development that spans the ages from 3 to 5 years, between the end of the toddler years and the start of first grade. It is the time in the young child’s life when the foundation is laid for physical, linguistic, cognitive, and social-emotional abilities that will expand throughout life.
Eclecticism, or integration, is now the most common theoretical orientation among counselors and psychotherapists in the United States. This has not always been the case. In the mid-20th century, three dominant theories of counseling and psychotherapy were often viewed as distinct and incompatible: psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and humanism. Less contradictory forms of therapy evolved during the
Early intervention can be both broadly and specifically defined. Generally speaking, the term refers to any specialized assistance provided to very young children, but can be used to define services needed by many, such as immunizations and child care, or it can be specifically targeted to a special population. It might even include programs that
Interpersonal learning occurs when individuals, through their interactions with others, acquire self-insight and learn new interpersonal skills. Interpersonal learning is facilitated through processes such as self-observation, self-reflection, feedback from others, and experimenting with new behaviors in an interpersonal context. Related therapeutic processes often occur in individual therapy (e.g., insight work, counselor feedback to the client
Experimental Realism Definition Experimental realism is the extent to which situations created in social psychology experiments are real and impactful to participants. Experimental Realism Background The concept of experimental realism was developed in response to criticism that most social psychology experiments take place in artificial laboratory settings and thus are invalid for examining how people
E c holali a derives from the Greek words “echo” meaning “sound,” and “lalia” meaning “a form of speech.” In Greek mythology, Echo is a nymph, an unfortunate victim of Zeus’ jealous wife, Hera, who is punished by Hera and no longer able to use her voice except in the form of echolalia. Echolalia refers
A theory is simply an explanation for understanding how things happen and why. A learning theory about career development explains how people discover their current occupations through a variety of different learning experiences. Within the learning theory framework, how occupations—accountant, senator, plumber—developed from life’s learning experiences can be explained. Our society advocates that people plan
When scientists conduct experiments, influences and errors occur that affect the results of the experiments. Those influences and errors that occur because of some characteristics of the experimenter or because of something the experimenter did are called experimenter effects. Experimenter effects reduce the validity of the experiment, because the results do not really tell about
There have been many different approaches to explaining development, but one especially has tried to deal with the importance of the environment without ignoring the uniqueness of the individual. Urie Bronfenbrenner, and more recently along with Pamela Morris, has developed what is called an experimental ecology of human development or an ecological theory of human
Anthropologist Edward T. Hall introduced the construct of low-context communication to describe the degree to which people rely on contextual factors rather than the explicit and transmitted part of the message to derive meaning in communication. In low-context (LC) communication, people attend to the explicit, communicated speech to gather information. LC communicators place less emphasis
Robbers Cave Experiment Definition The Robbers Cave experiment demonstrated that an attempt to simply bring hostile groups together is not enough to reduce intergroup prejudice. Rather, this experiment confirmed that groups must cooperate and have common goals to truly build peace. Thus, although contact is vital to reducing tensions between groups, interdependence is essential for
The term “ego” is today in common usage. People use the term “ego” in a variety of ways. Because the word is in everyday usage, people assume they know what it means. However, a word such as ego varies in the ways in which it can be used. As Wittgenstein sought to explain, we can
Metaphor is a form of figurative language, often described as facilitating the understanding of one thing in terms of another. In the comparison between two seemingly dissimilar concepts, the meaning of the first is carried over to help illuminate the second. Metaphors are valuable tools in the counseling process because they create structure, explain ideas
The Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) is a highly influential and controversial study run by Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues at Stanford University in 1971. The researchers originally set out to support the notion that situational forces are just as powerful and perhaps more powerful than dispositional forces in influencing prison behavior. In addition to providing
Ego development refers to the evolution of a personality construct that synthesizes experience into a coherent sense of how individuals view themselves. In this way, the ego development is at the center of the investigation of human experience. In another, it is an attempt to fathom the organization of one’s own mind; a process one
Mindfulness refers to a meditative practice most commonly associated with Buddhism that dates back to 25 centuries ago as part of the Buddha’s teachings. It has become increasingly popular in the Western world over the past 2 decades. Mindfulness meditation involves the practice of becoming fully aware of the present moment and all that is
Stanley Milgram was one of the most influential social psychologists of the twentieth century. Born in 1933 in New York, he obtained a BA from Queen’s College, and went on to receive a PhD in psychology from Harvard. Subsequently, Milgram held faculty positions in psychology at Yale University and the City University of New York
Our everyday conception of egocentrism involves people behaving “selfishly” or failing to be “considerate” of others. While egocentrism does in fact typically manifest itself in failures to take other people’s perspectives, it is more rooted in human cognitive shortcomings than in any motivation to be selfish. In both children and adults, egocentrism arises when we
Music is such an important part of life that some find it difficult to imagine what the world would be like without it. Music is a part of many social activities and is present in much of our environment. People may use music to communicate with others and often respond emotionally to music. Music has
Aggression Definition In sports and in business, the term aggressive is frequently used when the term assertive, enthusiastic, or confident would be more accurate. For example, an aggressive salesperson is one who tries really hard to sell you something. Within psychology, the term aggression means something different. Most social psychologists define human aggression as any
Elder abuse is a term that has both specific and general meanings. Specifically, the term refers to volitional acts (acts of commission) of physical, sexual, or psychological violence perpetrated against individuals over age 65 by family members or other individuals in positions of trust, such as health care providers. The term is not usually used
Narrative therapy (NT) refers to a variety of approaches that focus on the role of language, particularly stories, in counseling. The central thesis of narrative therapy is that clients tell stories in therapy and these stories are useful in assessing and helping clients. Narrative therapy’s broad explanatory power and useful therapeutic techniques have generated considerable
Bullying Definition Bullying is aggressive behavior in which there is an imbalance of power or strength. Usually, bullying is repeated over time. Bullying behaviors may be direct (e.g., hitting, kicking, taunting, malicious teasing, name calling) or indirect (e.g., rumor spreading, social exclusion, manipulation of friendships, cyberbullying). Although adults may tend to view bullying as an
Eating disorders are characterized by extreme attitudes and behaviors surrounding weight and food issues. Included in this class of disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Although each of these disorders is manifested in distinct ways, they both have the potential to result in extreme harm to physical and psychological health and can have life-threatening
Orthogonal cultural identification theory argues that in a pluralistic environment, individuals may identify with more than one culture without necessarily sacrificing one cultural identity for another. The central element of this theory is that identification with any one culture is independent from identification with other cultures. Cultural identification can be distinguished from ethnic self-labels, or
Catharsis Definition According to catharsis theory, acting aggressively or even viewing aggression is an effective way to reduce angry feelings and aggressive impulses. The word catharsis comes from the Greek word katharsis, which, literally translated, means “a cleansing or purging.” The first recorded mention of catharsis occurred in Aristotle’s Poetics. Aristotle taught that viewing tragic
Disgust has been described as an evolutionarily important emotion. According to Darwin, the function of disgust is to prevent orally ingesting contaminants or other biologically harmful substances. There are characteristic reactions associated with disgust, including physical (such as nausea), psychophysiological (muscle tension around the nose and mouth, reduction of vascular tension), and behavioral (typically avoidance).
Counseling and psychotherapy outcomes are the benefits (or harms) that derive for clients (patients or mental healthcare consumers) as a result of their experiences or treatment in therapy or counseling. Although it is generally assumed that therapy is an effective treatment for mental health concerns, this is not always the case. The determination of therapy
Cheater-Detection Mechanism Definition The human brain can be thought of as a computer—an organic one, designed by natural selection to process information in adaptive ways. It is composed of many programs, each of which evolved because it was good at solving a problem of survival or reproduction faced by hunter-gatherer ancestors in the past. The
There is no consensual definition of forensic psychology. Perhaps it is surprising, given the relatively long history and growth of forensic psychology over the past 40 years, that there is no uniform or consensual definition for this specialty area, and most differences involve how narrowly or broadly the field is defined. Definitions range from expansive
Numerous definitions of paradox have been offered that contain several commonalities. First, they involve a statement that is contrary to received, or common, opinion. Second, they involve some sort of logical contradiction. For example, in ancient Crete, Epimenides the Cretan said, “All Cretans are liars”—which leads to a logical contradiction because he cannot be believed
Conflict Resolution Definition Social conflict emerges when the aspirations, beliefs, or values held by one individual or group are frustrated by another individual or group. It emerges between parents and their children, between friends on a weekend outing, between colleagues at work, between groups from adjacent neighborhoods, or between rivaling teams within an organization. In
Many types of family violence have been recognized, including child abuse, wife abuse, and, more recently, elder abuse. All forms of family violence are at epidemic levels in the United States, yet considerably less investment has been made in reducing elder abuse than child and wife abuse. What Is Elder Abuse? Elder abuse, like other
Plato proposed the earliest person-environment (P-E) interaction model in The Republic around 360 B.C. He suggested that men be assigned to jobs based on their abilities and personality because each man is ideally suited to perform the tasks necessary for success on a single job. For example, guardians of the city must have the abilities
Counterregulation of Eating Definition Counterregulation of eating refers to a situation in which an individual eats more after having eaten something previously than after having eaten nothing at all. This pattern of intake runs contrary to the regulation (or compensatory, reduced eating) that we would normally expect and thus is referred to as counterregulation. History
Current estimates suggest that 1 million to 2 million American’s older than age 65 have been abused, neglected, or exploited by someone with whom they have placed their trust. Although standards may vary across cultures regarding the level of respect, attention, and support provided to the elderly, all cultures recognize the increased vulnerability that occurs
Phrenology, an outmoded scientific discipline, predicted individual traits and characteristics in humans by analyzing the shape of the skull. Franz Joseph Gall, a Viennese physician practicing in the late 18th century, held that the brain shaped the skull, and the resulting bumps and ridges could be used to predict human behaviors, aptitudes, and tendencies. Gall
Date Rape Definition Date rape refers to forced sexual intercourse without consent that is perpetrated by someone familiar to the victim, usually an acquaintance or date. Although date rape can be perpetrated by women, the typical date rape occurs when a man uses physical or psychological intimidation to force a woman to have intercourse against
Elderhostel was founded in 1975 by Martin Knowles, social activist and educator, and David Bianco, director of residential life at the University of New Hampshire. Knowles had stayed in youth hostels during several years of archaeological expeditions across Europe. He and Bianco discussed the meaningful involvement of Scandinavian elders that Knowles had seen at Scandinavian
Play therapy can be defined as a cluster of theory-driven treatment modalities used to establish an interpersonal process wherein trained play therapists help clients prevent or resolve psychosocial difficulties, facilitate optimal development, and reestablish the ability to engage in adaptive play behavior. For more than half a century, it has been the most prevalent child
Displaced Aggression Definition Direct aggression follows the tit-for-tat rule that governs most social interaction: A provocation or frustration elicits verbally or physically aggressive behavior that is directed toward the source of that provocation or frustration, typically matching or slightly exceeding its intensity. In displaced aggression, an aggressive behavior is directed at a person or other
During the third major developmental stage described by Freud, called the phallic stage, the child’s psychic energy is invested in the genital organs and the pleasure that is received through organ manipulation. It is also during this period that some of the most profound psychological changes in the child’s personality development take place. As children
Positivism emerged as a philosophical paradigm in the 19th century with Auguste Comte’s rejection of meta-physics and his assertion that only scientific knowledge can reveal the truth about reality. It was later formally established as the dominant scientific method in the early part of the 20th century by members of the Vienna Circle, including Gustav
For a good many students of human behavior, the main reason why people become aggressive is that they have been frustrated. William McDougall, one of the first psychological theorists to be explicitly labeled a social psychologist, espoused this idea at the beginning of the 20th century. He maintained that an instinct to engage in combat
Electroencephalogram (EEG) is a recording of the continuous electrical activity of the brain made by electrodes positioned on the scalp. It has many applications for clinical practice and both basic and applied research. The science of recording, analyzing, and interpreting EEG is part of a larger science called psychophysiology, which has its roots in both
Psychologists use a number of methods to assess psychopathology and personality, including structured and unstructured interviews, brief self-rated and clinician-rated measures (such as the Beck Depression Inventory), projective techniques (e.g., the Rorschach Inkblot Technique), self-report personality inventories (e.g., the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2; MMPI-2), behavioral assessment methods (e.g., observational techniques and diary measures), outcome and
GRIT Definition Graduated Reciprocation in Tension reduction (GRIT) was proposed by Charles Osgood in 1962 and refers to a method of restoring negotiations between two parties who are deadlocked. GRIT reestablishes negotiations by urging one side to initiate a concession. According to the norm of reciprocity, people are expected to reciprocate benefits from others. Therefore
During the 46-day embryo stage, the embryo grows to a length of more than 1 inch (2.5 cm). By the end of the embryo stage, many body systems will be in operation and the embryo will begin to appear humanlike. The embryo takes nourishment and oxygen and releases waste products through the umbilical cord, which
It has been over a century since Sigmund Freud first introduced psychoanalysis to the world and since “Anna O,” one of the earliest and most famous psychoanalytic patients, described the treatment she was receiving as “the talking cure.” Since those pioneering days of psychoanalysis, the influence of this theory can be seen in the myriad
Hostile Masculinity Syndrome Definition Hostile masculinity syndrome refers to a personality profile that includes interrelated attitudes and emotions that may be grouped within two primary components: The first consists of hostile, distrustful, insecure feelings toward people, particularly women, accompanied by misogynous (woman-hating) attitudes, such as beliefs that rape victims secretly desire to be victimized. The
When does adolescence end? When does adulthood begin? Traditionally adulthood began when education, whether secondary or higher, was complete; the person would begin a career and settle down, starting a family. In recent decades, the transition to adulthood has lengthened as more people have entered college and graduate school and delayed making major life choices
Psychoeducation combines psychotherapy with education to help participants deal with a targeted problem in their life. It has been implemented in a variety of settings, ranging from mental health clinics to occupational training. Psychoeducation focuses on providing valuable information to clients, and helping them improve awareness, skills, and communication related to the target problem. Therapists
Media Violence Definition Media violence includes all forms of mass communication that depict the threat to use force, the act of using force, or the consequences of the use of force against animate beings (including cartoon characters or other species as well as humans). There are many forms of media, including TV programs, movies, video
Albert Ellis first demonstrated and introduced his innovative rational-emotive therapy (RET) in 1957. In 1993, Ellis revised and expanded the scope of his theory, creating rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). REBT resulted from Ellis’s response to the frustration he experienced as a psychoanalyst when his patients were not improving using traditional psychoanalytic techniques. Ellis found
Moral Hypocrisy Definition Webster’s Desk Dictionary of the English Language (1990) defines moral as “1. of or concerned with principles of right or wrong conduct. 2. being in accordance with such principles” (p. 586); it defines hypocrisy as “a pretense of having desirable or publicly approved attitudes, beliefs, principles, etc., that one does not actually
Reframing is a technique used by counselors to shift a client’s view of a particular problem, event, or person. It is based on the assumption that when clients are able to view a situation from another perspective, opportunities for finding alternative, acceptable solutions to their problems increase. The effectiveness of reframes in therapy is documented
Rape occurs when one individual forces another into sexual intercourse against his or her will. Other instances in which one of the individuals participates in sexual acts without fully consenting to them (e.g., unwanted kissing) are encompassed within the more general term sexual coercion. Males are much more frequently than females the perpetrators of rape
First developed in 1977, self-efficacy is an important component of Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Self-efficacy refers to people’s judgments of their ability to perform necessary behaviors to produce desired outcomes in specific situations. These judgments are highly context specific and tend to influence which activities people will attempt, how much effort they will put
Sexual Harassment Definition The term sexual harassment came into use in the U.S. federal courts in the 1970s to describe a form of gender-based discrimination in the workplace. There are two legally recognized forms of workplace sexual harassment: quid pro quo and hostile environment sexual harassment. In quid pro quo, unwanted sex or gender-related behavior
Self-help groups consist of individuals who share the same problem or concern. Group members provide emotional support to one another, learn ways to cope, discover strategies for improving their condition, and help others while helping themselves. Self-help groups, also referred to as support groups or mutual help groups, are cost-free, voluntary groups that have no
Deception Definition Deception – is most commonly defined as intentional attempts to mislead others through words or behaviors. Deception can involve misrepresenting one’s actual beliefs, knowledge, feelings, characteristics, or experiences. The term lying is commonly used to describe explicit verbal deception (e.g., telling your boss that you were late for work because of traffic, when in
Originally developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner to understand the psychological bases of intergroup discrimination, social identity theory seeks to explain the psychological and social bases for intergroup behavior and has more recently been used to also understand intragroup processes. Social identity theory can be used in the contexts of multicultural counseling, research, and
Suicide Definition Suicide is the act of intentionally taking one’s life. This definition, however, has been expanded to describe the range of thoughts and behaviors that are exhibited by individuals who are in some manner considering suicide. Suicidal ideation involves having thoughts of killing oneself or of being dead. Suicidal intent involves having a plan
The Socratic Method can be a useful tool for many forms of psychological treatment and can be incorporated into many schools of counseling and psychotherapy. Named after the famous philosopher Socrates, who lived in ancient Greece (469-399 B.C.) and who sought the answers to major philosophical questions through dialogue, the Socratic Method often refers to
Terrorism is certainly the scourge of our times. Considerable economic, military, political, and scientific resources are devoted these days to the “war on terrorism.” Psychological research is not only relevant but also essential to understanding this issue. Indeed, the psychology of terrorism has become one of psychology’s major growth markets. Books and journals on the
Solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT), also called solution-focused therapy or solution-building practice therapy, was developed by Steven de Shazer, Insoo Kim Berg, and their colleagues. As the name suggests, SFBT is future-focused and goal-directed, and focuses on solutions rather than on the problems that brought clients to seek therapy. De Shazar, Berg, and their collaborators established
Antisocial Behavior Definition Antisocial behavior refers to actions that violate social norms in ways that reflect disregard for others or that reflect the violation of others’ rights. The major reason to study antisocial behavior is that it is harmful to people. Also, it raises issues of whether people are inherently prone to be harmful to others
The Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) is a person-environment fit (P-E fit) theory that elaborated the P-E fit theories of Frank Parsons, Donald G. Paterson, and John G. Darley into a dynamic model of vocational adjustment. The TWA postulates that optimal vocational outcomes occur when (a) the individual’s abilities match the skills required for success
Attitudes Definition Attitudes refer to our overall evaluations of people, groups, and objects in our social world. Reporting an attitude involves making a decision concerning liking versus disliking or favoring versus disfavoring an attitude object. Attitudes are important because they affect both the way we perceive the world and how we behave. Indeed, over 70
Beginning with the first documented vocational counseling attempts of Frank Parsons in 1909, vocational counseling and research focused for nearly half a century on vocational choice—not on how or why one made a particular vocational decision, but rather on what that decision was. Donald Super’s theory of vocational development was therefore unique in being one
Control Definition The term control has a long history in social psychology and has been used in a variety of ways. At the most general level, control can be defined as influence, whether it be over internal states (as in emotional control or self-control) or over external aspects of the environment, including control over outcomes (i.e.
A therapist interpretation is a technique that introduces the client to a new, theoretically based frame of reference. An interpretation goes beyond the explicit and observable client content and involves communicating an inferred component with the intention of adding new knowledge, understanding, or meaning. Psychodynamic Approaches Interpretation is the central technique in psychoanalysis and in
Decision Making Definition Decision making refers to the act of evaluating (i.e., forming opinions of) several alternatives and choosing the one most likely to achieve one or more goals. Common examples include deciding for whom to vote, what to eat or buy, and which college to attend. Decision making plays a key role in many
While many theories of psychotherapy and counseling develop specific techniques to fit their assumptions and concepts, many techniques cut across theories. Furthermore, many mental health practitioners make use of different theoretical frameworks and interventions at different times, and these practitioners sometimes combine techniques and interventions from a variety of sources. Positive therapeutic outcomes depend upon
Emotions Definition Emotions can be defined as psychological states that comprise thoughts and feelings, physiological changes, expressive behaviors, and inclinations to act. The precise combination of these elements varies from emotion to emotion, and emotions may or may not be accompanied by overt behaviors. This complex of states and behaviors is triggered by an event
Group Definition There is no consensus among social psychologists on the defining characteristics of a group. Nearly all definitions, however, emphasize that a group is not a mere aggregation of individuals. Rather, two or more individuals become a group to the extent that they are bonded together in some way, which generally means that they
In interpersonal relationships, two participants are interdependent, where the behavior of each affects the outcomes of the other. Additionally, the individuals interact with each other in a series of interactions that are interrelated and affect each other. Individuals form many different kinds of relationships with other people, some of which are intimate and close (e.g.
The role of a clinical forensic psychologist is not limited to criminal cases. They are often asked to serve in less sexy, civil matters. One such example is in the role of a mental health professional in a child custody evaluation. With the divorce rate in the United States hovering at about 50 percent, the
Personality Definition Personality is an individual’s typical way of feeling, thinking, and acting. Given that personality is typical, it is fairly stable over time. Social behavior refers to a person’s feelings, thoughts, or actions as he or she relates to other people. These two definitions have a very close relationship. Knowing something about an individual’s
Prejudice Definition Prejudice is defined as an attitude toward people based on their membership in a group (e.g., their racial group, gender, nationality, even the college they attend). Critical to prejudice is an inflexibility in the reaction to the target person whereby the responses to the target are not based on the target’s behaviors or
Prosocial Behavior Definition Prosocial behavior is voluntary behavior intended to benefit another. Thus, it includes behaviors such as helping, sharing, or providing comfort to another. Prosocial behavior is evident in young children but changes in frequency and in its expression with age. Individual differences in prosocial behavior are caused by a combination of heredity, socialization
Many students ask how they can become a forensic psychologist or work in some of the areas already mentioned. The answer to that question is as varied as the different tasks that a forensic psychologist may undertake. The one thing that is clear is that becoming a forensic psychologist involves going to graduate school, and
Self Definition In psychology, the notion of the self refers to a person’s experience as a single, unitary, autonomous being that is separate from others, experienced with continuity through time and place. The experience of the self includes consciousness of one’s physicality as well as one’s inner character and emotional life. People experience their selves
For thousands of years there has been philosophical debate about what it is that makes humans different from other species of animals on Earth. Whether one believes that humans are just another step in the evolutionary process or descended from aliens, there is no denying that humans are different from other animals. Although many aspects
Social Influence Definition Social influence means any noncoercive technique, device, procedure, or manipulation that relies on the social psychological nature of the organism as the means for creating or changing the belief or behavior of a target, regardless of whether or not this attempt is based on the specific actions of an influence agent or
Anticipatory Attitude Change Definition Anticipatory attitude change refers to shifting or changing one’s expressed opinion or attitude on a topic as a result of being informed that one will be exposed to a message or communication on the topic. Thus, prior to receiving any aspect of the message itself, people might adjust their opinions on
Attitude Strength Definition Some attitudes exert a powerful impact on thinking and on behavior, whereas others are largely inconsequential. Similarly, some attitudes are very firm, resistant to even the strongest challenges and persistent over long spans of time, but others are highly malleable, yielding to the slightest provocation and fluctuation over time. The term attitude
A disorder reflects a set of symptoms (mental or physical) that causes significant impairment or distress. Comorbidity is the simultaneous presence of two or more disorders within a person. For example, a person diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder and major depressive disorder may experience symptoms of the former condition, such as chronic, uncontrollable worry, as
The concept of competence versus performance is fundamental to the study of language. This distinction recognizes that the “mistakes” people make when speaking (performance) may not accurately reflect what they actually know (competence). We all have made “slips of the tongue,” where we substitute a word or sound for another or use a different grammatical
The concrete operational period is the third period in Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Piagetian periods occur in invariant order. Thus, a child must pass through the sensorimotor and preoperational periods before entering the concrete operational period and must pass through the concrete operational period before entering the formal operational period. Although exact ages
Conduc t disorder (CD) is defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition/text revision (DSM-I V-TR), as a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior that violates the rights of others or violates major age-appropriate societal norms or rules. These behaviors fall into four main categories: (1) aggressive conduct that threatens physical
Conflict and development are bound together: Conflict both fosters maturation and is a product of it. Two distinct forms of conflict may be identified: intrapersonal conflict and interpersonal conflict. Each plays a different role in human development. Intrapersonal conflict denotes internal strife, the resolution of which may prompt social, cognitive, or emotional maturation. Interpersonal conflict
Heart failure is a chronic condition in which the heart is unable to pump a sufficient volume of blood to supply the body’s oxygen needs. High-output failure results from intolerable increases in oxygen demand, often resulting from thyrotoxicosis, beri-beri, and other conditions and does not reflect underlying heart disease. It will not be further discussed
While the majority of older adults live in independent, free-standing housing throughout their lives, advanced age necessarily increases the likelihood that an individual will benefit from an enriched supportive living environment. Congregate housing responds to the needs of persons 65 years and older who wish to have a limited set of support services available to
Conscience is the set of faculties that allows one to participate in the social world by balancing one’s needs and desires with those of others. Conscience is evident in behavior that is consistent with an individual’s own moral standards. Often, at the core of these standards is a value of the rights and welfare of
Conservation refers to the knowledge that the quantitative properties of objects are not changed by a mere change in perceptual appearance. As adults, we take such knowledge for granted. We do not believe that the amount of juice changes if it is poured into a different-shaped container, nor are we concerned that we have less
Arguably, the key task of developmental scientists is to describe and explain developmental change. Changes may occur within an individual across the life span, and there may be between-person differences in such intraindividual change. The description and explanation of intraindividual change involves the concepts of developmental continuity and discontinuity, whereas the description and explanation of
Procreation and sexual behavior are two of the most important of human behaviors. Without sex and procreation the species would not continue. Unfortunately, these behaviors are not well studied due to both methodological challenges and cultural taboos. There are, however, a few basic facts and distinctions that can be identified. According to Warren B. Miller
The term convergent thinking is defined as the process of finding the single best solution to a problem or question, such as arriving at the answer to a multiple choice question or figuring out how to program your VCR. Coined by J. P. Guilford in 1950, convergent thinking is a process that seeks out the
Cooperative learning refers to instructional methods in which students work in small groups to learn academic content. Cooperative learning methods vary widely. Group sizes may range from pairs to groups of four or more. Children may be asked to work on projects, to tutor each other, or just to help each other as needed. Each
Children of all ages play and enjoy playing. Psychologists have found that play is important for children not only because they enjoy it so much, but because it also plays an important role in promoting social, emotional, and cognitive development. During play, children learn skills that help them interact with other children and adults, and
Corporal punishment refers to intentional application of physical pain as a method of changing behavior. Youth in the United States experience various forms of corporal punishment in two primary places: their homes and their schools. When corporal punishment occurs in the home, it can be thought of as a form of family violence. The most
Does high school grade point average (GPA) predict college performance? Does reading to a child help future school performance? Researchers, legislators, business people, teachers, and parents are all interested in how variables are related. This relationship is the general way in which different values of one variable are associated with different values of a second
Cosleeping is generally characterized by caregivers and their children sleeping in close proximity, either with the caregiver and child sharing a bed or the child sleeping in the same room as the caregiver but in a separate location, such as a bassinet or crib. Cosleeping can entail children and caregivers sharing sleeping locations for all
In the courtroom, it is often the testimony of a witness that determines whether an alleged perpetrator will be convicted of a crime. Courtroom testimony from a witness in a civil case can determine how that case is resolved. When crimes such as murder or rape occur (or, in the realm of civil law, when
With the arrival of the relatively inexpensive and smokable crack form of cocaine, the rate of newborns exposed to cocaine in utero rose dramatically in the early 1990s. In the mid-1990s it was estimated that 1.1% of pregnant women used crack cocaine. Early reports of neonatal behavioral abnormalities led to the label “crack baby syndrome”
The onset of crawling is a major milestone in infant motor development that also heralds a dramatic and pervasive set of changes in psychological functioning. Crawling represents the culmination of a long and complex struggle to overcome and then exploit the effects of gravity from the prone position. Once acquired, independent mobility offers many new
A kindergartener’s finger painting, a composer’s sonata, a scientist’s discovery—many seemingly disparate acts can be labeled “creative.” While creativity has been widely valued both in children and adults, the concept of creativity has varied greatly in its definition. Creativity is conceptualized by some as a desirable trait that a person is either gifted with or
Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) is a rare, devastating, degenerative, and mostly fatal brain disorder. It is part of a group of diseases called prion diseases that occurs in humans and certain animals. The leading scientific theory at this time maintains that CJD is caused by a type of protein called a prion. This group of diseases
Whether it is in a classroom setting, a requirement for college admission, or to acquire something as simple as a driver’s license, few individuals in today’s society can avoid the necessity of taking tests. The scores received on these tests say something about what we know. Our knowledge level, as measured by the test, can
Critical and sensitive periods are times when development of a particular area may be most influenced by environmental factors. The terms may be confusing, particularly when applied to behavior, because they do not have commonly accepted meaning and the research designs required to demonstrate them behaviorally can rarely be conducted. Strictly, critical periods are relatively
Everyone is born into a cultural environment. Cultures vary widely in belief systems, settings, languages, and processes of transmission, such as child socialization and teaching. Culture also provides a set of “rules” for interaction and a kind of blueprint for human development. The study of cross-cultural development is concerned with the varieties of human behavior
The longitudinal method examines one group of people repeatedly over time, whereas the cross-sectional method examines several groups of people at one point in time. For example, if you investigated changes in social behavior in 20-, 30-, and 40-yearolds all measured at one point in time, you would be conducting a cross-sectional research study. In
Crying is not just the sound of a fussy baby or a bothersome noise. It is a direct and effective way that the young child communicates. For preverbal children, crying is definitely language. Crying is an important part of the infant’s earliest communication system that is used to convey various demands and needs, such as
The notion of crystallized intelligence was first proposed by the British psychologist Raymond B. Cattell in a 1943 article in which he outlined his perspective on the structure of intelligence, a perspective born of his efforts to develop a culture-free intelligence measure. Cattell’s theory initially suggested that general intelligence could be conceptually subdivided into two
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a recessive hereditary disease that causes the mucous glands in the lungs and digestive tract to secrete unusually thick and sticky mucus. Instead of acting as a lubricant, these secretions clog the lungs and prohibit the pancreas from working efficiently, resulting in a number of secondary illness characteristics. CF affects approximately
Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural and sexual selection, which today unifies the life sciences. He was born in Shrewsbury, England. After graduating from Cambridge, Darwin embarked on the H.M.S. Beagle for a British scientific expedition to map the coastline of southern South America. As the resident naturalist, Darwin collected specimens and
Changing Nature Of Dating Across History The definition and practice of dating continues to change across time and varies significantly among different cultures. For example, in 1977, according to Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, dating in the United States was defined as a “social engagement between two people of the opposite sex.” Recently, however, this definition
As the population of the United States shifted from rural, agrarian, or farming living arrangements to those of more urban and industrial conditions starting in the middle of the 19th century, men saw their role as parent transformed by employment demands that pulled them away from the home. Instead of holding a central role as
The word deafness encompasses the state of not hearing. Prevalence estimates indicate that roughly 34 million adults representing approximately 17% of the United States report having a hearing loss. Within this group, the number of adults with severe to profound hearing loss ranges from 464,000 to 738,000, with approximately 54% being older than 65 years
The subjects of “children” and “death” seem somehow contradictory and yet it is clear, based on children’s drawings and writings, as well as a child’s adulthood memories, that the two subjects are often related. Consider the history of certain chants and games: “Peekaboo” is said to be derived from an old English word meaning “dead”
“Death with dignity” has long been a slogan of the “right to die” movement. Proponents of legalizing physician-assisted suicide and/or voluntary active euthanasia (in which mentally competent patients with terminal illnesses can request to end their lives and suffering) adopted this rallying cry as a means of speaking to the concern of the general public
The study of reasoning is very important because it pertains to the heart of the question of whether people think logically and rationally. Do people follow the basic rules of logic when they make inferences? Some researchers highlight the flaws of human reasoning and its irrationality; others stress the enormous flexibility and rationality of human
Deferred imitation refers to observing a model and replicating important aspects of the model’s behavior after some significant period. Jean Piaget proposed that deferred imitation, along with language, imagery, and symbolic play, is an indication of the symbolic (or semiotic) function. Although Piaget stated that deferred imitation emerges at around 18 months of age, more
Definitions And Descriptions Delinquency is a legal term, which is generally defined as antisocial or criminal acts that violate legal laws and cultural norms. Juvenile delinquents are almost always diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) or conduct disorder (CD). According to the Di agnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV), the standard
Definition Dementia is characterized by the development of multiple cognitive deficits, including memory (deficits in learning new information or in recalling previously learned information) and at least one of the following: language (word retrieval difficulties, defects in understanding complex commands, loss of semantic knowledge), perception (problems in the identification of objects or in the recognition
In a scientific experiment, a researcher investigates whether changes in one or more independent variables have an effect on one or more dependent variables. A dependent variable is what is assessed as an outcome or effect of the study. It is a variable because the measure can take on some range of values. It is
Buddhism is a religious tradition founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who lived in Northern India in the 6th century BC Gautama was called the Buddha after he attained enlightenment; the name Buddha means “The Awakened” or “Enlightened One.” Through study, contemplation, and great effort, the Buddha achieved an understanding of the true nature of reality. He
Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating accompanied by inappropriate compensatory strategies that are used to prevent weight gain. These inappropriate compensatory strategies include self-induced vomiting, fasting, excessive exercise, and the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, enemas, or other medications. Self-induced vomiting is the method used most frequently by individuals
Bullying, also referred to as peer harassment or victimization, is defined within the context of peer relationships in childhood and adolescence and involves the frequent, persistent, and intentional use of physical harm or intimidation by one child or a group of children to victimize another child. Most definitions of bullying also emphasize a power differential
Cancer is a term used to describe more than 100 different diseases that can affect almost any part of the body. In healthy people, cells replicate and create exact copies of themselves to replace dead or damaged cells. Cancer occurs when the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) makes an error when copying itself, resulting in a cell
Cardiovascular disease is a general umbrella term that refers to a group of disorders involving the heart and blood circulation systems, such as hypertension, stroke, congestive heart failure, cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disease, and coronary heart disease. Coronary heart disease refers to the narrowing or blockage of one or more coronary arteries by a gradual buildup
Career development is, for most people, a lifelong process of getting ready to choose, choosing, and, usually, continuing to make choices from among available occupations in our society. Each individual undertaking this process is influenced by educational, economic, sociological, cultural, geographical, physical, psychological (e.g., interests, skills), and chance factors. Work may be defined as a
A case study is a research technique used to study an individual or group providing intense description and analysis. This particular method was the cornerstone of Freud’s work in his psychodynamic theory; his classic case study of “Little Hans,” a child terrified of horses, was used to demonstrate how psychological difficulties of an individual can
In cognitive psychology, categorization focuses on how knowledge is organized. Objects in the same category are likely to share certain attributes, and category membership allows inferences to be drawn. The term cat egory refers to a set of things (objects, ideas, events) that are grouped together. The term concept often refers to the mental representation
Catholicism is a Christian religious tradition that has as its central belief that Jesus Christ is both God and man; that he is the Son of God and freely chose to become man to be the Savior of humankind. Catholicism dates back to the time of Christ, and early Church records show the use of
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is an agency of the Department of Health and Human Services responsible for developing and implementing disease prevention and control, environmental health, and health promotion and education aimed at enhancing the health of people in the United States. The CDC started in 1946, and since then, it
Charter schools represent a relatively new school reform strategy in the United States for children in kindergarten through 12th grade (K−12). Starting with the passage of the first charter school law by the legislature of Minnesota in 1991, the number of states with charter school legislation has grown to 41 states and the District of
Quality child care/day care for families is an important aspect of daily life. At its best, child care provides positive socialization, enriches development, and improves social/familial/labor concerns. Child care/ day care can simply be described as any service involving care of others’ children, but child care is also complex in that it includes a variety
The term child custody employed here refers to child consequences and parental responsibilities following separation and divorce. Child custody may also refer to legal terminology related to guardianship and legal authority in the care of a minor child following adoption, loss of parental rights due to abuse or neglect, or other situations. In each case
Child abuse is a global problem. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 40 million children between birth and 14 years of age are abused or neglected annually around the world. Thus, child abuse is found across all societies and cultures, almost always surrounded by secrecy and denial. The exact number of children who are
The three longitudinal studies that constitute the Intergenerational Studies (IGS) of the Institute of Human Development (IHD) were initiated in the late 1920s, and the study members represent two birth cohorts: people born in Berkeley in 1928–1929 and people entering an Oakland middle school in 1932 (born in 1920–1921). Data were collected from and about
There are many children in our society who go through the day without eating or who fail to receive adequate medical services when ill. Others reside in homes without running water or electricity or homes infested with rodents and roaches. At times, young children are left at home without adequate supervision and are often responsible
Few child development experts would disagree that parenting has a significant influence on child psychological and behavioral outcomes. Furthermore, research has reported that the way in which a child is parented not only impacts childhood health, but also shapes the course of adult lives. A problem for parents is that advice from child professionals has
In its strictest definition, childlessness occurs when people do not biologically bear children. However, this definition is limited and fails to address the complex psychosocial factors that contribute to its causes and consequences. Most people are childless for large segments of their life and actively pursue not getting pregnant or having children. In this context
Children with special health care needs include those with chronic illnesses (e.g., asthma, diabetes, sickle cell anemia), physical disabilities (e.g., cerebral palsy, spina bifida), and developmental/emotional disabilities (e.g., autism, Down syndrome). Historically, children have been classified as having special health care needs based on whether they have been diagnosed with specific conditions. In the past
The United Nations Convention On The Rights Of The Child The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) is the clearest and most comprehensive expression of what the world community wants for its children. The Convention is the most universally accepted human rights instrument in history (except for the United States and
Noam Chomsky is cofounder of the Department of Philosophy and Linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and a seminal figure in 20th-century linguistics, anarchism, and radical politics. He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1928 to William, foremost Hebrew grammarian, and Elsie (née Simonofsky), a Hebrew teacher also involved with Zionism, the Hebrew
Chromosomes are large pieces of DNA that contain genes, other sequences of DNA, and associated proteins. Genes code for traits, and many of the additional sequences and associated proteins, are used to organize and to regulate the expression of the genes. A typical human cell contains 46 chromosomes, which if stretched out and laid end
Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a poorly understood and sometimes controversial illness thought to affect as many as 800,000 Americans. Individuals with CFS often report flulike symptoms with low-grade fever and body aches. CFS is often a diagnosis of exclusion, since other potential medical or psychiatric disorders must be ruled out before a diagnosis of
What Is Chronic Illness? A chronic illness is any medical condition that has a prolonged course and often interferes with physical and mental functioning. Chronic medical conditions may also be marked by periods of acute exacerbation that require more intensive medical attention. Examples of chronic illnesses include acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), asthma, cancer, cerebral palsy
Circadian rhythms refer to regular or rhythmic variations in biological and behavioral measures approximately (“circa”) on a 24-hour or daily (“dian”) timing basis. Virtually all biological and behavioral measures taken over time show circadian rhythms. For example, core body temperature normally reaches its highest value in the early evening and lowest value between 4 and
Circumcision is the surgical removal of the foreskin from the penis and is practiced by Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Circumcision was practiced by Egyptians in antiquity and is now prevalent among many African tribes. Among Jews, circumcision is performed on the 8th day after birth and is also required of male proselytes as an
As we traverse the path from birth to death, chronological age (CA) provides a simple and convenient signpost for all that happens along the way. Birthdays have assumed the form of a personal holiday for almost everyone, marked with pleasure in the earlier stages of life, and often with regret and ill humor in the
We are constantly making predictions about events that may happen in our environment and actively seeking information with predictive value. Predictability is so important that the signs used to make predictions also acquire affective value in their own right. Classical or Pavlovian conditioning is the mechanism that endows signals with predictive value and transforms them
Cluster suicide refers to the occurrence of two or more suicides or suicide attempts, or both, that occur closer together in time and geographic space. Of all the different age groups, teenagers are more susceptible to cluster suicide than others, accounting for about 100 to 200 deaths every year in the United States. It has
Cocaine is a frequently used central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that enhances energy and mood. It is also a dangerous drug of abuse, the subject of much regulatory legislation, and a major target of the “war on drugs.” History Cocaine is a naturally occurring substance found in the shrub Erythroxylon coca that grows in the
Sport and recreational-related injuries have become a significant public health concern for physically active persons. For example, in 2006 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimated that participation in high school sports will result in approximately 1.4 million injuries reported to medical staff at a rate of 2.4 injuries per 1,000 athlete exposures (i.e.
Although dual-process theories have become popular over the last few decades, ideas about mental division have existed for centuries. Significant philosophers and psychologists, such as Plato and Sigmund Freud, believed that the mind was partitioned, and the early work in this area has contributed much to modern dual-process theories. These theories, which have recently become
Hearing impairment is a common disorder, affecting many children and adults. Its severity varies widely among individuals. Mild loss of hearing sensitivity can almost always be treated effectively by acoustic hearing aids. These devices electronically amplify weak sounds to enable people with hearing loss to hear most sounds comfortably. However, sometimes the degree of impairment
Cognitive dissonance refers to the psychological discomfort that people experience when there is inconsistency between their knowledge or beliefs and their behavior. Dissonance is distressing because humans strive to be consistent within themselves. A major category of cognitive dissonance is known as postdecision dissonance. This refers to the distress that occurs after one makes a
Cognitive equilibrium refers to a state of balance between an individual’s mental schemata, or frameworks, and his or her environment. Such balance occurs when our expectations, based on prior knowledge, fit with new knowledge. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980) developed the concept of equilibrium to describe one of four critical factors in cognitive development, along
Predicting school achievement as well as traditional psychometric measurements of intellectual abilities, cognitive styles are not abilities themselves but rather preferred ways of applying the abilities one has. Typically, cognitive styles refers to the manner in which individuals receive, process, and apply information. Unlike individual differences in abilities that often are arranged by descriptions of
The trends in romantic relationships have been changing dramatically over the past few decades in the United States. Divorce rates increased steadily over the past 40 years and are finally leveling off at just less than 50%; marriage rates have similarly declined, with the average age of first marriage increasing; and the number of cohabiting
A cohort refers to a group of individuals who have common characteristics such as age, experience, location, or generation. Historically, the term was used to describe a Roman military unit. Currently, the term is used more loosely, and the grouping characteristics of a cohort can be quite varied. The most typical type of cohort in
Colic and colicky apply to crying behaviors in otherwise healthy infants who, despite their caregivers’ attempts at soothing, cry inconsolably. Colic has been defined as inconsolable or excessive infant crying for which no physical cause can be found and which lasts a minimum of 3 hours of total crying per day, at least 3 days
Common law marriage is a form of marriage that is recognized without legal and civil formalities such as a marriage license or a ceremony and includes all of the rights, privileges, and duties of formal marriage. This form of marriage was an important recognition of rights for early settlers in the United States, where access
Many are familiar with Dustin Hoffman’s portrayal of a man with autism in the movie Rainman. We laughed as he repeatedly stated that he only buys his underwear at K-mart and were amazed that he could count the number of toothpicks on the floor with a single glance. Yet, we were mystified that he did
Life expectancy is the average number of years remaining to an individual of a specified age if the mortality conditions implied by a particular period (cross-sectional) or cohort (longitudinal) life table applied; the former projects the years remaining to all people of a given age, and the latter projects years remaining to all people born
Babbling is the stage of language development during which children produce speech sounds arranged in nonsensical combinations, such as “bababa,” “deedeedee,” or “badegubu.” All normally developing children babble. Parents and family members may view babbling as an endearing but trivial behavior produced by infants; however, babbling represents a stage of language development during which the
The Babinski reflex is also known as Babinski’s sign or hallucal dorsiflexion reflex, and was first described by Dr. Joseph Francois Felix Babinski (1857–1932), a French neurologist. The reflex is a neuromuscular one elicited by drawing a blunt point (such as a thumbnail or the end of the handle of a reflex hammer) along the
Baby Boomers have had a tremendous impact on 20th century history and culture. Baby Boomers are defined as anyone born between 1946 and 1964. In the United States, nearly 30% of the population constitutes Boomers. The increased birthrate in the post–World War II era also impacted Canada, where the generation is known as “boomies.” In
Babies learn to speak by listening to their caretakers. People help them by modulating the sounds of speech in fundamentally the same way. A topic of much speculation among researchers who study language acquisition is the observation that caretakers consistently address their infants in this unique tone and manner of voice, a form that has
The Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA) is a major clinical research program in human aging conducted in Baltimore by the National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health (NIA, NIH). The events that started the BLSA have become almost a legend in the research field of aging. In 1958, Dr. William W. Peter, an
Albert Bandura is a past president of the American Psychological Association (1973) and has been a professor at Stanford since 1953. Bandura was born in Alberta, Canada. He received his BA from the University of British Columbia in 1949 and his PhD in clinical psychology from the University of Iowa in 1952. Following his graduation
Bar Mitzvah means “son of commandment,” a rather elliptical term connoting that a young Jewish male has reached the age of majority, and thus become obligated to perform ritual commandments. A child reaching Bar Mitzvah age may be counted toward the 10 adults required for a prayer quorum. A similar term—Bat Mitzvah—is used for Jewish
Roger G. Barker was a professor of psychology at the University of Kansas and a recipient of the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award (1963) from the American Psychological Association (APA), the Kurt Lewin Award (1963) from the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, and the G. Stanley Hall Award (1969), APA, Division 7 (1969).
Battered child syndrome (BCS) has been defined as “the collection of injuries sustained by a child as a result of repeated mistreatment or beating.” If the injuries sustained by the child suggest that physical trauma was inflicted intentionally or if the injuries appear on examination to be more severe than one might expect to have
Battered woman syndrome (BWS) is a psychiatric and legal term that refers to the constellation of psychological effects experienced by abused women and is intended to explain, for example, why women stay with their abusive partners and why abused women sometimes kill their abusive partners. The term emerged in the late 1970s and has been
Diana Blumberg Baumrind is considered to be among the foremost experts on parenting in the United States. She has also had a distinguished career as an academic researcher and commentator on the role of ethics and understanding of research findings. She has been awarded multiple national grants over a 40-year career devoted to family socialization
Nancy Bayley was born and reared in The Dalles, Oregon, and died in Carmel, California. In the history of developmental psychology, few other individuals loom so large. After grade school and high school in her home town, Bayley attended the University of Washington in Seattle. She planned to become an English teacher but changed to
The Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID-II), published by Psychological Corporation, are a set of scales that takes 45 minutes to administer and assess mental, physical, emotional, and social development. Because the scales provide an overall picture of the child’s developmental status, they are often used to evaluate whether children are developing normally or may
The process of human development inevitably ends in death. Bereavement, grief, and mourning are terms used to describe distinct aspects of people’s reactions following the death of a loved one or other significant loss. Bereavement is the state that results from having experienced the death of a loved one; so to be bereaved is to
The term “bereavement overload” was coined by psychologist and gerontologist Robert Kastenbaum over 30 years ago to refer to circumstances in which a grieving individual confronts multiple losses simultaneously or in rapid succession, such that one loss cannot be accommodated before another occurs. Although bereavement overload can be triggered by a great range of circumstances
Bilingualism refers to the regular use of two languages by speakers who have a high level of proficiency in each language. In contrast, multilingualism refers to the regular use of three or more languages on a regular basis. Between one third and one half of the world’s population is bilingual or multilingual. In the United
Alfred Binet was a French pioneer of modern psychological testing who developed the prototype of many intelligence tests in use today, including the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Binet was born in 1857, the only child of a physician father and artist mother. His independent wealth allowed him to pursue his interests and work without remuneration throughout
The term “binge drinking” has traditionally been used in reference to extreme levels of alcohol consumption over a prolonged period of time, a drinking pattern common among alcohol-dependent individuals. More recently, the term has been used to denote a pattern of “heavy episodic drinking” common in adolescents and young adults. Although this type of drinking
Binge eating is defined as the uncontrolled eating of a large amount of food within a discrete period of time (e.g., within any 2-hour time period). Within the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, binge eating has two distinguishing characteristics: (1) the consumption of an amount of food that clearly is larger than
Life on earth has evolved with the ability to cope with cyclical changes in the environment. The length of these environmental cycles is determined by our planet’s rotational period (day-night cycle) as well as the period of its revolution around the sun (e.g., seasonal cycles). The survival of an organism depends on its ability to
Birth defects are also termed congenital anomalies or inborn errors. While not always diagnosed at birth, they are believed to have been present at birth and have their origin in some perturbation of the normal developmental process. The causes of birth defects include genetic abnormalities inherited from either or both parents; genetic abnormalities that spontaneously
Alfred Adler, founder of the theory known as Individual Psychology, first introduced the concept of birth order. Adler identified characteristics of different ordinal positions, but he also emphasized the importance of psychological birth order. Adler believed that a family member’s perception of his or her position within the family of origin may or may not
Birth weight is the actual weight of the baby determined immediately after delivery. The average birth weight in the United States varies between 3,000 and 3,600 g, depending on factors such as race, size of the parents, and gender (boys are heavier). Birth weight distribution of 150,000 deliveries between the years 1988 and 2002 in
Birth centers are places where women and their families can experience the joys of childbirth. They provide intensive care to the childbearing family through extensive education and offering choices throughout pregnancy, labor, birth, and the postpartum period. The philosophy is family centered, and all birth centers provide a home-like environment that offers a nurturing and
The term bisexual can be used to refer either to people’s sexual behavior or to their sexual identity. This distinction is made because behavior and self-selected labels do not always correspond. The prefix “bi” literally means two and is therefore used to refer to the dualistic nature of attraction to or sexual behavior with members
Body mass index (BMI) is a measure of human physical fitness that is designed to provide a standard metric for evaluating individuals’ weight, relative to their height. Specifically, BMI is calculated as weight divided by height (squared), as shown below. As such, BMI can be thought of as the ratio of weight to height, per
Edward John Mostyn Bowlby is, together with Mary Ainsworth, the founder of attachment theory. In this theory, Bowlby tried to explain the way in which infants establish ties with their mothers or caregivers, and he explored the emotional consequences of disrupted ties. Bowlby grew up in a typical upper-middle-class family in London. His father, a
Advances in medicine, surgery, and public health have gradually increased the average life expectancy of the population. At the same time, patients with chronic diseases experience increased survival periods in relatively good health, leading to advanced single or only few organ failures, making them adequate candidates for organ replacement via transplantation. The accumulated knowledge and