Humans share many similarities with other animals, including the ability to experience sensations, exhibit motor behavior, and even socialize. However, we are clearly different in many important regards. For example, unlike any other animal, humans possess the unique ability to produce and understand language, experience complex emotions, and perform higher cognitive functions. Not surprisingly, each
The two hemispheres of the human brain are anatomically and functionally asymmetric. Anatomical Asymmetry Anatomical differences between the two hemispheres are observed in gross sulcal and gyral patterns and size. The left Sylvian fissure is often more branched, longer, and horizontal than the corresponding structure in the right hemisphere (RH). The planum temporale (PT), associated
T. Berry Brazelton’s role as researcher, clinician, and advocate for parents has been one of the formative influences in pediatrics in the United States for over 50 He was born in Waco, Texas, on May 10, 1918, and graduated from Princeton in 1940. In 1943 he graduated from the Columbia University College of Physicians and
Despite considerable advances in diagnosis and treatment in the past few decades, breast cancer remains a significant public health concern. Over 210,000 new cases are diagnosed in the United States annually, making it the most common type of cancer in women. It is predominantly a disease of women, with estimates that one in seven women
The optimal natural breathing reflex is the effortless inhale with the best nervous system balance and least effort that supplies oxygen supply and carbon dioxide balance when needed and helps maintain nervous system balance. It is essentially parasympathetic. The Reflex During Rest Or Inactivity Optimally it is a “non-pulled-in” inhale that occurs when the body
Approximately 3% to 4% of all pregnancies reach term (38-plus weeks of gestation) with a fetus in the breech presentation, in which the baby’s rear end is introduced before the head. Breech presentation is common when remote from term. However, as term approaches, the uterine cavity most often accommodates the fetus in a longitudinal lie
Urie Bronfenbrenner is the Jacob Gould Sherman Professor of Human Development and Family Studies and Psychology at Cornell University and was one of the founders of Head Start. Bronfenbrenner was born in Moscow and came to the United States when he was 6 years old. He received his bachelor’s degree from Cornell University in 1938
Roger William Brown was the John Lindsley Professor in Memory of William James at Harvard University and recipient of numerous awards, including the Distinguished Scientific Achievement Award of the American Psychological Association and election to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences. Such widespread recognition was prompted by both
Brain plasticity refers to the observation that both the structure and function of the brain are molded by experience much in the way that plastic is shaped by a manufacturer to suit various demands. Brain plasticity occurs during development of the nervous system, when we learn, and in response to injury. This plasticity is manifested
Perhaps the most eminent living psychologist, Bruner has made an incomparable contribution to our understanding of cognitive development in a career spanning 60 years. His erudite writings, which draw on anthropology, philosophy, and literary theory among other fields, have inspired several generations of developmentalists. Born in New York City, Bruner was educated at Duke (BA
Founded in 1935, Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is a mutual-help organization for alcoholics, with about 2 million members and 99,000 groups in more than 140 countries. Among individuals who seek help for an alcohol problem in the United States, more than half go to AA—substantially more than those who choose formal treatment. The structure and function
What Is Alcoholism? Who Is An Alcoholic? Alcoholism, as lay people generally know it, is the fondness, desire, or even need for alcohol in an extreme sense to the point of addiction. Alcohol is the most widely used legal drug worldwide that also predisposes people to dependence or abuse (addiction) in certain parts of the
Alleles are variant forms of a particular gene. Each person carries two copies of each gene (one from their mother and one from their father). They may have two exact copies of a particular gene, or their two copies may vary from each other. The varied forms of a particular gene are called alleles. Sometimes
Allergies affect millions of people in the United States and include environmental allergies to pollen, animals, foods, different chemicals, and certain manmade substances. Allergic responses occur when the body reacts to normally innocuous substances in the environment as it would to toxins. The body reads the allergen as an intruder, and the immune system is
Philosophers throughout the ages have debated whether humans actually intend to perform altruistic actions, actions that are beneficial to others and costly to the actor, without any clear resolution. In recent decades, psychologists have addressed the long-standing philosophical debate over the existence of altruism, usually defined as unselfish concern for the welfare of others, with
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive, neurodegenerative disease that accounts for 50% to 75% of all dementias affecting older adults. AD affects 5% to 10% of all adults older than 65 years, and this proportion doubles every 5 years over 65; consequently, it is a major health concern in the United States. About 4.5 million people
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) was founded in 1930 at Harper Hospital in Detroit. A group of 34 physicians who specialized in children’s health convened in the hospital’s library to set forth the future of America’s children, acknowledging the differences between adult and child health care. They settled on the name American Academy of
Beginnings Of AARP The American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) is a nonprofit, nonpartisan membership organization for people age 50 years and older with more than 35 million members. According to its literature, AARP is dedicated to “enhancing quality of life for all as we age,” and the organization also provides a range of benefits
The American Psychological Association (APA) formed over a century ago to promote the exploration of psychology through research and clinical practice. This impressive association is the largest and most influential psychological organization today. History And Mission The APA was formed in 1892 at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts. Originally comprised of 26 members, its current membership
The American Psychological Society (APS) is the leading national organization devoted solely to scientific psychology. Its mission is to promote, protect, and advance the interests of scientifically oriented psychology in research, application, and improvement of human welfare. Established in 1988, the APS was instantly embraced by psychology’s scientific community, and its membership grew rapidly. By
Stress is an unpleasant state of emotional arousal that people experience in situations that they perceive as dangerous or threatening. It is accompanied by physiological, behavioral, and cognitive changes. Although stress signals danger and thus has a protective function, the experience of chronic stress is a causative factor in physical illness as well as poor
American Sign Language (ASL) is the principal language of the signing deaf community in the United States. There are estimated to be as many as 500,000 ASL signers, making it one of the most frequently used languages in North America. ASL, however, is only one of many sign languages used by deaf people around the
Hans Selye first introduced the concept of stress in 1926. In his early work, Selye defined stress as a bodily response to overuse or damage. Modern definitions view stress as a response to internal or external factors that are perceived as threatening. Refinements in this field have led to the use of two terms: stressor
Noted child psychologist Louise Bates Ames, PhD, was instrumental in the field of child and human development. Both her undergraduate (1930) and master’s (1933) degrees in psychology were received from the University of Maine. Her doctoral degree in experimental psychology was granted by Yale University in 1936. Working with Arnold Gesell, in her doctoral dissertation
Psychologists have made systematic efforts to identify the relation of events that occur during therapy to the beneficial outcomes clients report. This critical topic is addressed by every theory of psychotherapy, and well over a thousand studies of the efficacy of therapeutic interventions have been published during the last seven decades. Recently, psychologists have undertaken
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was enacted in 1990 and became effective in 1992. Expanding the protection afforded by the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the ADA represents the most inclusive and far reaching of the nondiscrimination laws since the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964. The ADA protects otherwise qualified individuals from discrimination
Technology provides tools to help counselors accomplish their work more effectively and efficiently beyond what they can do without it. Counselors now have high-tech methods for better managing, supporting, conducting, delivering, and describing their work as before never imagined. Such power, however, comes with great responsibility. Counselors must work diligently to make certain that technological
Currently, amphetamines (AMP) and methamphetamines (MA) are among the most widely abused illicit drugs in the world, second only to marijuana. More than 35 million individuals worldwide use and abuse AMP or MA on a regular basis (as compared with cocaine, which is used by about 15 million people, and heroin, used by fewer than
Trait-factor counseling approaches assume that career choice may be facilitated and career outcomes optimized through a fairly straightforward process of matching an individual’s most relevant work-relevant characteristics (abilities, interests, values, etc.) with information regarding job activities, demands, rewards, and availability. The counseling process for this approach typically starts with a client interview, then proceeds to
Social Impact Theory Definition Social impact theory proposes that the amount of influence a person experiences in group settings depends on (a) strength (power or social status) of the group, (b) immediacy (physical or psychological distance) of the group, and (c) the number of people in the group exerting the social influence (i.e., number of
Feminine traits, those characteristically associated with women, include helpfulness to others, gentleness, warmth, and emotionality. Masculine traits, stereotypically associated with men, include assertiveness, self-reliance, achievement orientation, and independence. Traditionally, psychologists viewed femininity and masculinity as opposite roles of a single bipolar continuum: the more feminine a person was, the less masculine that person could be.
Treatment compliance is defined as the degree to which patients’ behaviors (e.g., attending follow-up appointments, engaging in preventive care, following recommended medical regimens) correspond with the professional medical advice prescribed. The terms compliance and adherence are often used interchangeably; however, because compliance may carry a negative connotation, some prefer to use adherence to emphasize patients’
In 1975, Harvard biologist Edward O. Wilson published Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, wherein he outlined a framework for investigating the biological basis of social behavior. As a branch of evolutionary biology, sociobiological theory aims to use demographic parameters (e.g., growth and mortality rates, gender and age distributions) and the genetic structure of populations to predict
Anemia is a condition in which the oxygen-carrying capacity of the red blood cells is reduced. The red blood cells, or erythrocytes, contain molecules called hemoglobin that bind oxygen. Oxygen is picked up from the lungs on the hemoglobin molecules and transported through the blood throughout the body to tissues as required. There are many
Assessment and diagnosis of an individual’s problems and concerns represent important precursors to effective counseling. In order to help someone, the counselor must formulate an accurate appraisal of the problems to be targeted in the counseling process. Using diagnostic interviews and psychological tests, mental health professionals hope to develop an accurate diagnosis of the client
Stress Appraisal Theory Definition Stress appraisal refers to the process by which individuals evaluate and cope with a stressful event. Stress appraisal theory is concerned with individuals’ evaluation of the event, rather than with the event per se. People differ in how they construe what is happening to them and their options for coping. Stress
Emotions are often written all over children’s faces. They are unique qualities that develop over time, distinguish each individual child from others, and significantly influence our personalities over the course of our life spans. Anger is one of the most talked about yet least understood emotion. It has been an important field of study in
Universities and colleges have provided counseling services to students for over 80 years. Early on, counseling was often conducted by psychiatrists who worked in student health services. In the 1930s, there was movement for counseling to be conducted by counselors and psychologists who viewed students’ problems from a normative developmental model and were trained in
Symbolic Interactionism Definition Symbolic interactionism is a major theoretical perspective in North American sociological social psychology that studies how individuals actively define their social reality and understand themselves by interacting with others. Symbolic interactionism has its origins in pragmatism, the American philosophy of how living things make practical adjustments to their surroundings. American sociologist and
Anorexia nervosa (AN) is characterized by a severe disturbance in eating behavior as well as an underlying psychological profile that is as important to the disorder as the disturbed eating behavior. Individuals with AN are underweight yet fear gaining weight and also exhibit disturbances in the perception of the shape and size of their bodies.
According to contemporary psychodynamic theory, the working alliance is one of three components of the psychotherapy relationship. The other two are the transference/countertransference configuration and the real relationship. Counseling psychologists across a broad range of therapeutic approaches who do not ascribe to the importance of the latter two constructs believe that the alliance is a
Temporal Construal Theory Definition Temporal construal theory is a general theoretical framework that describes the effects of psychological distance on thinking, decision making, and behavior. Psychologically distant objects and events are those beyond one’s direct experience of the here and now and can be distant on a number of dimensions: time, space, social distance (self
Anti-Semitism, or prejudice against the Jews or Jewish culture, has plagued the world for almost 2,000 years. The Jews were scapegoats first in the ancient and medieval Christian world and then in the modern world. Anti-Semitism is one of the greatest examples throughout the course of human history of man’s inhumanity to his fellow man.
Traditional models of behaviorism, represented by figures like John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner, are typically considered inconsistent with the concept of “personality,” which itself represents an unobservable construct. Such “radical” behavioral approaches emphasized the study of observable behavior, and thus any theory of personality was restricted to typical patterns of behavior exhibited by
Terror Management Theory Definition Terror management theory is an empirically supported theory developed to explain the psychological functions of self-esteem and culture. The theory proposes that people strive to sustain the belief they are significant contributors to a meaningful universe to minimize the potential for terror engendered by their awareness of their own mortality. Cultures
Definition The term antisocial behavior was originally defined as recurring violations of socially prescribed norms across a range of contexts (e.g., school, home, and community). Antisocial behaviors include verbal and physical aggression toward others, disregard for authority figures, readiness to break rules, and a breach of society’s social norms and mores. In the school setting
Cognitive theories of personality focus on the processes of information encoding and retrieval, and the role of expectations, motives, goals, and beliefs in the development of stable personality characteristics. This approach differs from personality theories that emphasize either the conditions within which personality develops (e.g., behavioral theories) or the trait structures that are revealed in
Theory of Mind Definition Theory of mind (ToM) refers to humans’ everyday mind reading. It is the commonsense ability to attribute mental states (such as beliefs, desires, and intentions) to one’s self and to other people as a way of making sense of and predicting behavior. For example, your thought that “John thinks I ate
Anxiety is a common experience to all, including children and youth. Although many people may consider anxiety to be a negative experience associated with stress or problems, it can serve a positive function by alerting one to imminent threats or danger. Anxiety is also a marker for typical developmental patterns and can serve as an
Evolutionary personality psychology suggests that human personality variation is a meaningful and relevant source of human diversity, and that different combinations of heritable personality traits biologically prepare individuals to exploit the different social niches they inhabit. Human personality variation relates to numerous important life outcomes, including life history traits such as sexuality, sociality, fertility, morbidity
Theory of Planned Behavior Definition Developed by Icek Ajzen in 1985, the theory of planned behavior (TPB) is today perhaps the most popular social-psychological model for the prediction of behavior. It has its roots in Martin Fishbein and Ajzen’s theory of reasoned action, which was developed in response to observed lack of correspondence between general
At a young age, Virginia Apgar, born in Westfield, New Jersey, decided upon medicine for her future career. Apgar majored in zoology, chemistry, and physiology and graduated with a bachelor’s degree from Mount Holyoke College in Massachusetts in 1929. She then entered the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University and completed her degree
The five-factor model of personality (FFM; often referred to as the Big Five model) is an empirically derived approach that organizes the structure of personality into five broad factors: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. Numerous studies have been conducted on the model and many of these lend support for the existence of
Threatened Egotism Theory Definition The threatened egotism theory of aggression states that violence is related to a highly favorable view of the self, combined with an ego threat. This theory does not suggest that high self-esteem necessarily causes violence or that there is any direct relationship between self-esteem and violence. Furthermore, although there is evidence
Apnea is a brief pause in one’s breathing pattern. When it occurs for extended periods or frequently during sleep, it may be a cause for concern. Pauses of 20 seconds five or more times per hour in adults indicate the presence of sleep apnea syndrome, whereas the syndrome is diagnosed when pauses of 10 seconds
Phenomenological approaches to personality take human experience or subjectivity as their primary focus. Phenomenological theorists assert that obtaining accurate knowledge of another person requires understanding how that person experiences the world. Personal experience constitutes immediate reality. A secondary focus of phenomenological theories is the self. The self is thought of as a cognitive-affective structure through
Triangular Theory of Love Definition The triangular theory of love characterizes love in terms of three underlying components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. People love each other to the extent they show these three components, and different combinations of the components yield different kinds of love. The Three Components The three components of love are each
Applied behavior analysis is the scientific study of behaviors of social importance. Established principles of behavior, described in large part by B. F. Skinner through his meticulous empirical investigations with nonhuman animals, are applied to the improvement of behaviors about which people in our society care. Applied behavior analysis attempts to understand behavior through precise
The set of theories of personality development that are referred to collectively as psychodynamic or psycho-analytic vary dramatically in their specifics, but share a common lineage and several core concepts. Scholars agree that Sigmund Freud, the famous and controversial Austrian neurologist who wrote the first comprehensive theory of personality development, laid the foundation for all
Autobiographical Narratives Definition Autobiographical narratives are the stories people remember (and often tell) about events in their lives. Some autobiographical narratives refer to memories of important personal events, like “my first date” or “the day my father died.” Others may seem trivial, like a memory of yesterday’s breakfast. Many psychologists study the extent to which
Aptitude is a very complex term with different meanings and uses. According to Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (2003), aptitude can be defined as (1) an inclination, tendency, or a natural ability; (2) a capacity for learning; and (3) general suitability. The most common definition of aptitude involves an innate ability to perform an activity or task.
Developed over nearly five decades by Albert Bandura, social cognitive theory—which emphasizes the reciprocal interaction of behavior, cognitive, and other personal factors, and environmental influences on human functioning—has been carefully derived from empirical findings and subjected to repeated tests within many areas of human functioning. This reciprocal process of theory development and testing has, over
If you ask a person about their sexual activity, illicit drug use, or prejudices against certain others, you may not get a straight answer. Embarrassment, fear of legal repercussions, or a simple desire to look good can create distortions in responses to such questions. Social psychologists have developed many research techniques to get more accurate
Aptitude tests are standardized instruments assessing specific cognitive, perceptual, or physical skills. These tests are frequently used in industry to inform decisions about hiring, placement, and advancement. In addition, aptitude tests are used in selection procedures for college, professional programs, and career planning. Aptitude tests are also useful for program evaluation and answering research questions
Action theory is based on a school of thought in philosophy, social and cognitive psychology, neurology, and organizational behavior as well as in counseling and career development. This school of thought addresses the intentional, goal-directed nature of human behavior. It has historical roots in the works of George Herbert Mead, Talcott Parsons, and Lev Vygotsky
Content Analysis Definition Content analysis involves the systematic coding of information in archival records. It is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words or concepts within a set of texts. The process of content analysis involves first selecting the texts from which the information will be gathered and then deriving the
Arterioscle r osi s is the scientific term used to describe what is commonly referred to as “hardening of the arteries.” The process most often responsible for this transformation is atherosclerosis, arterial hardening due to the deposition of fat, calcium, cellular debris, and other substances within the arterial wall. Because of its greater specificity, the
Adlerian therapy refers to counseling and psychotherapeutic interventions that are associated with the individual psychology of Alfred Adler (1870-1937), a Viennese psychologist and contemporary of Sigmund Freud. Individual psychology emphasizes an examination of the individual’s social and cultural embeddedness, a holistic view of personality, taking personal responsibility, striving to achieve life goals, growth towards a
Control Condition Definition The control condition in an experimental design lacks any treatment or manipulation of the independent variable. People assigned to the control group serve as the basis of comparison for the people in the experimental condition. Everything in a control condition is the same as the experimental conditions except that the independent variable
Aspe r g e r syndrome (AS) is the term applied to the mildest and highest functioning end of the autistic (or pervasive developmental disorder [PDD]) spectrum, which ranges from AS to classic autism. People with AS typically display impairments in three areas: social difficulties (i.e., reading social cues, social awkwardness, and poor social skills)
Adventure therapy is an active and creative form of group psychotherapy that employs experiential activities designed to promote desired therapeutic outcomes for clients. Adventure therapy is a broad rubric that subsumes a variety of experiential approaches to group therapy that utilize challenging, cooperative tasks to foster healthy change in clients. Examples include experiential outdoor counseling
A cross-lagged panel correlation refers to a study in which two variables are measured once and then again at a later time. By comparing the strength of the relationship between each variable at the first point in time with the other variable at the second point in time, the researcher can determine which variable is
In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the purpose of children’s thinking is to help them adapt to the environment in increasingly efficient ways. The techniques children use to adapt to the environment are called schemes. Schemes are action patterns that children transfer or generalize by repeating them in similar circumstances or in meeting recurring needs.
Art therapy combines the process of art making (drawing, painting, sculpture, and other art media) with methods of psychotherapy to improve and enhance the psychological well-being of individuals of all ages. It is based on the belief that the creative process involved in artistic self-expression helps people to resolve psychological problems, develop interpersonal skills, manage
Deception Definition Deception is a methodological technique whereby a participant is not made fully aware of the specific purposes of the study or is misinformed as part of the study. Two main forms of deception may occur in research. The researcher intentionally misinforms the participant about some aspect of the study. For example, a researcher
Assisted living facilities (ALFs) are a relatively new type of housing for older adults, which provide variable levels of care in a dignified and homelike environment. ALFs fulfill the needs of older adults who are not able to live independently in their own homes but do not require the greater care provided in nursing homes.
Attachment theory provides a useful theoretical framework for understanding how relationships function to facilitate or hinder developmental progress, such as progress in career development. A central tenet of this theory concerns the central role of attachments as enduring emotional bonds of substantial intensity that influence healthy development and participation in satisfying relationships. Regularities in interactions
Demand Characteristics Definition Demand characteristics are any aspect of an experiment that may reveal the hypothesis being tested or that may cue participants as to what behaviors are expected. Cues that may reveal the true purpose of an experiment can be embedded in information conveyed in the solicitation of participants, instructions given to participants, the
Physician-assisted suicide (PAS) is the intentional termination of a human’s life, at the explicit request of the one who dies, with the aid of a physician. The so-called “Doctor Death,” Dr. Jack Kevorkian, brought attention to PAS when he assisted several terminally ill patients end their lives. Kevorkian was imprisoned for his activities. Related to
Behavior therapy does not assume that, at their core, humans are inherently positive or negative. Behavior therapy assumes that, within biological constraints, humans are complex learners. Sometimes rich repertoires of positive behaviors are learned. Sometimes excesses (e.g., high anxiety or anger) or dysfunctional behaviors (e.g., substance use, aggressiveness, or inappropriate avoidance) are learned. Sometimes people
Ecological Validity Definition Ecological validity is the extent to which research findings would generalize to settings typical of everyday life. As such, ecological validity is a particular form of external validity. Whereas external validity refers to the overall extent to which findings generalize across people, places, and time, ecological validity refers more specifically to the
Asthma is a chronic, inflammatory disorder of the airways associated with variable airflow obstruction that reverses either spontaneously or with treatment and bronchial hyper-responsiveness to a range of triggers such as tobacco smoke, cold air, exercise, and strong emotion. It is characterized by recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and cough that are usually
Brief Therapy Definition Brief therapy is a type of counseling that is time limited and present oriented. Brief therapy focuses on the client’s presenting symptoms and current life circumstances, and it emphasizes the strengths and resources of the client. The therapist in brief therapy is active and directive. Termination of counseling is a major focus
Falsification Definition One cannot prove whether a theory or hypothesis is true. One can only prove that it is false, a process called falsification. Falsification is a tool that distinguishes scientific social psychology from folk social psychology, which does not use the process of falsification. Falsification History and Theory From the beginning of the 20th
Very few topics in the field of human development have garnered as much attention as the nature and significance of the parent-child relationship. The theoretical approach to parent-child relationships that has generated the most extensive research, social policy changes, and controversy is attachment theory. At the core of attachment theory is the premise that early
Cognitive therapy is based on the idea that beliefs determine feelings and behavior. Albert Ellis, who along with Aaron Beck pioneered the cognitive approach to therapy, favored this quote by the Stoic philosopher Epictetus (first century A.D.): “What disturbs people’s minds is not events but their judgments on events.” Cognitive therapists use a variety of
Forced Compliance Technique Definition The forced compliance technique is an experimental procedure whereby people are induced to behave in a way that is inconsistent with their attitudes, beliefs, values, or other thoughts about an issue. The procedure was initially developed for studying how inconsistency between behavior and attitudes can motivate people to change their position
Few aspects of Western culture touch as many people or command as much attention as athletics. Historically, athletics helped shape the beliefs, values, and behavior of many societies. The Greeks, for example, created the Olympic games to celebrate cultural, artistic, and individual excellence. Athletic training was part of every Greek boy’s education and was intended
Cognitive-behavioral therapy derives from the research protocols of hundreds of active scholars focused on a wide array of specific clinical problems. They cumulatively conclude that dysfunctional human behavior is caused or at least accompanied by irrational thinking and behavioral skill deficits; thus treatments focused on producing more reasonable thought patterns and personal-social coping skills provide
Implicit Association Test Definition Psychologists have long suspected the existence of thoughts and feelings that are not accessible by simply asking a person to report them. It may be that people are unwilling to report what they think and feel. Or, even more likely, people may not be aware of everything that they think and
Attention is what helps us to maintain perception, thought, and behavior despite distraction. There are many varieties of attention, each with a different purpose and dependent on different brain mechanisms in order to function. Attention can be separated into three main categories: selection, vigilance, and control. There are many theories regarding the mechanisms of different
The influence of postmodernism’s challenge of the “objectivist” position in psychology has been central in the evolution of constructivist therapies. The abandonment of the certainty of modernist positions for the tentative, constructed meanings in the postmodern world has given rise to a number of therapeutic approaches that eschew well-established, contemporary icons in psychology. Objective assessment
LISREL (LInear Structural RELations modeling) was one of the first statistical computer packages used for structural equation modeling. Created by Karl Joreskog and Dag Sorbom, it remains one of the most popular programs for such analyses, although numerous other programs exist, including EQS, Proc Calis within SAS, and Amos. As with all structural modeling programs
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common, most talked about, and most vexing of the psychiatric disorders. Symptoms of restlessness, distractibility, and poor self-control have been recognized since the mid-1800s when Heinrich Hoffman, a German physician, wrote a poem about “Fidgety Phil.” Over time, the disorder has been seen as a
Conversion therapy (also known as reparative therapy, reorientation therapy, or transformational therapy) has been generally understood to have as its chief goal the cessation or changing of individuals’ same-sex attraction and sexual behavior and the adoption of opposite-sex attraction and sexual behavior. Proponents and practitioners of conversion therapy base the rationale for such intervention on
Lost Letter Technique Definition The lost letter technique is used to measure people’s attitudes by dropping stamped letters addressed to various organizations in public areas and then recording how many of the letters are returned via the mail. It is assumed that people will be more likely to return a letter if it is addressed
Attention is a component of higher cortical cognitive functioning and refers to a person’s ability to (a) detect and focus on general environmental stimuli, and (b) select important environmental stimuli. Once an important stimulus is selected, its relevant or important characteristics must be identified while irrelevant competing stimuli are ignored. To “pay attention,” the individual
There are many definitions of what constitutes a crisis sufficient to bring a person to counseling. Richard K. James and Burl E. Gilliland defined a crisis as the perception of an event or situation as intolerable and one that exceeds the immediately available resources and coping mechanisms of the person. Unless the person obtains relief
Meta-analysis uses statistical techniques to summarize results from different empirical studies on a given topic to learn more about that topic. In other words, meta-analyses bring together the results of many different studies, although the number of studies may be as small as two in some specialized contexts. Because these quantitative reviews are analyses of
The research of attitudes is probably one of the most controversial, yet fascinating, areas of psychology. Although contemporary psychologists tend to define attitudes as evaluations of people, objects, and ideas, attitude theories and research have looked at attitudes in many different ways and from several varying perspectives. The study of attitudes was already popular in
Critical incident stress debriefing (CISD) is a specific, seven-phase, small-group crisis intervention technique. It is a structured discussion of a significant traumatic event, commonly referred to as a critical incident. A critical incident stress debriefing is a supportive crisis-focused tool that is employed by a specially trained crisis intervention team after a small, homogeneous group
Mundane Realism Definition Mundane realism describes the degree to which the materials and procedures involved in an experiment are similar to events that occur in the real world. Therefore, mundane realism is a type of external validity, which is the extent to which findings can generalize from experiments to real-life settings. Mundane Realism History and
Attribution theory is a prominent and widely researched theory of motivation that was developed by Bernard Weiner and colleagues from the University of California, Los Angeles, in the 1970s and 1980s. The focal point of attribution theory is the general human tendency to ask “why” an outcome occurred, especially outcomes that are negative, unusual, or
Critical race theory (CRT), initially created as a body of legal theory, is an organizing framework useful in understanding human behavior and social processes relevant to racial group categorizations and racial stratification. Critical race theory examines the oppressive dynamics of society to inform individual, group, and social transformation. Rather than embracing a colorblind perspective, CRT
Nonexperimental Designs Definition Nonexperimental designs are research methods that lack the hallmark features of experiments, namely manipulation of independent variables and random assignment to conditions. The gold standard for scientific evidence in social psychology is the randomized experiment; however, there are many situations in social psychology in which randomized experiments are not possible or would
Authoritarian style is one of the three original parenting styles Diana Baumrind recognized. In describing parenting styles, Baumrind identified two dimensions of parenting. The first relates to how demanding parents are. This element speaks to parents’ levels of strictness or supervision. The other dimension Baumrind acknowledged relates to how responsive parents are. In other words
Social science and medical literature, including research on mental health and counseling, has frequently been based on presuppositions that all individuals who differ from members of the sociopolitically dominant cultural group in the United States (i.e., male, heterosexual, Caucasian, Western European Americans of middle-class socioeconomic status and Christian religious affiliation) are deficient by comparison. This
Operationalization Definition Operationalization is the process by which a researcher defines how a concept is measured, observed, or manipulated within a particular study. This process translates the theoretical, conceptual variable of interest into a set of specific operations or procedures that define the variable’s meaning in a specific study. In traditional models of science, operationalization
Developmental counseling and therapy (DCT) is a counseling approach developed by Allen Ivey for understanding and helping people. It is based in theories of individual uniqueness, human growth and development, family and environmental systems, wellness, multicultural awareness, counseling and therapy, and change. DCT may be described as an integrative metatheory that incorporates other theories and
Path Analysis Definition Path analysis is a statistical technique that is used to examine and test purported causal relationships among a set of variables. A causal relationship is directional in character, and occurs when one variable (e.g., amount of exercise) causes changes in another variable (e.g., physical fitness). The researcher specifies these relationships according to
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is a cognitive-behavioral treatment program originally developed by Marsha Linehan as a treatment for highly suicidal women with borderline personality disorder (BPD) and other difficult-to-treat mental disorders. DBT draws its principles from behavioral science (e.g., reinforcement, classical conditioning), Zen mindfulness practices (e.g., quieting the mind and focusing attention), and dialectical philosophy
Placebo Effect Definition A placebo is a medical term for a drug that has no active ingredient. Biologically, it doesn’t do anything, but the patient might mistakenly believe it is a powerful medicine. In fact, in bygone eras, some people who took snake oil and other medically useless substances did get better, partly because they
For centuries, the field of psychology has been interested in understanding behavior and cultures. In effect, social and behavioral scientists have identified two critical approaches in understanding human behavior and cultures: an etic perspective and an emic perspective. Based on universal comparisons of behaviors that can be generalized across cultures, the etic approach is consistent
Quasi-Experimental Design Definition A quasi-experimental design is a research methodology that possesses some, but not all, of the defining characteristics of a true experiment. In most cases, such designs examine the impact of one or more independent variables on dependent variables, but without assigning participants to conditions randomly or maintaining strict control over features of
Within the past 15 years, the field of psychotherapy has wrestled with how to identify the type and nature of evidence that will allow one to validly determine if and when a treatment is likely to be helpful or harmful. Numerous factors, including concerns expressed both by individual citizens and their political representatives, the diverse
Semantic Differential Definition The semantic differential is a method of measurement that uses subjective ratings of a concept or an object by means of scaling opposite adjectives to study connotative meaning of the concept or object. For example, the first level meaning of a car is that of a transportation device; the second level meaning
Client expectations about counseling and psychotherapy are widely believed to influence the therapy process and outcome. Theorists from disparate theoretical persuasions have included expectations as a central construct in their theories. Research on the common factors that account for much of the success of psychotherapy confirms the influence of client expectations. The Construct of Expectations
Social Relations Model Definition The social relations model is a theoretical and statistical approach to studying how people perceive others. Although investigations of person perception have a long history in social psychology, early methodological approaches relied on research participants reporting their perceptions of fictitious others who were described in brief stories. The social relations model
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) is a psychotherapy approach used to process distressing memories that are the basis of a wide range of clinical complaints. Comprehensive treatment includes attention to past, present, and future not only to address overt symptoms but also to increase attributes associated with a positive quality of life. Eye movement
Sociometric Status Definition Sociometric status refers to how much a child is liked and noticed by peers. It reflects a broader categorization of peer acceptance than simple friendships. Sociometric categories include popular, rejected, neglected, controversial, and average children. Sociometric status is important because peer relations play a significant role in the social and emotional development
Feminist therapy, rather than being a succinct theoretical model, is a philosophy of psychotherapeutic intervention that recognizes the impact of varied social practices on personal well-being. It has its roots in the feminist and equal rights movements of the 1960s, and it embraces the conviction that “the personal is political”—that is, that which affects the
Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a particular form of data analysis. According to this approach, a researcher begins with a model that specifies how multiple variables are related to each other. These theorized relationships are formalized into a set of equations that include the variables in question. These variables are then measured and their relations
The corrections population in the United States comprises inmates in federal and state prisons, territorial prisons, local jails, Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement facilities as well as military and juvenile facilities, and this population differs across a multitude of variables compared to nonincarcerated populations. Each of these variables individually and collectively creates challenges in
Twin studies can tell us about how genes and environments affect behavioral and physical development. There are two kinds of twins: identical and fraternal. Identical twins result when one fertilized egg splits during the first two weeks of pregnancy. These twins share all their genes and are always of the same sex. They occur in
Forensic Counseling Definition Forensic counseling may be defined as the application of counseling values and philosophy to persons involved in the legal process. In order for this to occur, one of four processes must take place. The first is concerned with the counselor’s intellectual comprehension of criminal behavior, including sexual crimes, spousal abuse, behavioral problems
Bennington College Study Definition The Bennington College study was conducted by sociologist Theodore Newcomb from 1935 until 1939. The study examined the attitudes of students attending the then all-female Bennington College early in the college’s history; indeed, the study began during the first year that the college had a senior class. The study is notable
Bobo Doll Experiment Definition Albert Bandura conducted the Bobo doll experiment in the 1960s to investigate whether children could learn new behaviors through observation. The descriptive name of these studies comes from an inflatable child’s toy, a “Bobo doll,” that had a weighted bottom which allowed it to be repeatedly knocked over and yet bob
The theory of cognitive dissonance, invented by Leon Festinger in 1957, is generally considered to be social psychology’s most important and most provocative theory. Simply stated, cognitive dissonance is a state of tension that occurs whenever an individual simultaneously holds two cognitions (ideas, attitudes, beliefs, opinions) that are psychologically inconsistent with each other. Two cognitions
President John F. Kennedy and several of his key advisers met in March 1961 to discuss a Central Intelligence Agency plan for the invasion of Cuba. The consensus of the group was to proceed with the invasion. At least one adviser, Arthur Schleshinger, had serious doubts about the wisdom of the plan, but he did
Experimental Condition Definition There are many research methods available to the psychological scientist. Some allow researchers to describe phenomena (surveys and observational studies), and another allows researchers to explain phenomena (an experiment). To explain a phenomenon, one must be able to determine cause and effect. The only research method that can do that is an
Ethics can be considered in a variety of ways: as a set of ethical codes, as a decision-making model, or as a set of principles. There is typically a set of common principles that underlie these perspectives, and these are the moral principles that are commonly accepted. So, for example, many ethical codes rest on
Careful observers of humans and other organisms noticed long ago that certain variables that should vary as environmental conditions change actually do not vary much within the organism. For example, store shelves remain stocked despite customers buying products. Control theory arose as one explanation for the mechanism that keeps variables stable. Industrial and organizational psychologists
Survey Definition A survey can be broadly defined as a detailed investigation of a topic. Although interviews and focus groups are often included under this broad umbrella, the term survey has become synonymous with a questionnaire approach to research. Surveys are arguably the most common approach to data collection in organizations, primarily because of their
The topic of job choice subsumes all the activities involved in the process of deciding where to work. The concept underlying job choice research is that individuals are motivated to find work consistent with their preferences and goals. Job seekers engage in a goal-directed search process and compare each potential job relative to alternatives. The
Person-job (PJ) fit is defined as the compatibility between individuals and the job or tasks that they perform at work. This definition includes compatibility based on employee needs and job supplies available to meet those needs, as well as job demands and employee abilities to meet those demands. In the past, the term PJ fit
Although there is no universally accepted definition of organizational culture, researchers generally agree that organizational culture refers to the shared meaning, interpretations, and understanding of various organizational events among organizational members. Organizational culture serves as a guide to members to behave in ways shown to be effective over time; adds a sense of predictability and
You need look no further than the newspaper headlines to see that issues of integrity have become paramount in the workplace. Scandal, abuse of power, theft, and assorted other problems have contributed to poor public images for many organizations and led to the downfall of others. The problem with integrity is twofold. First, how do
Judgment and decision making (JDM) refers to an interdisciplinary area of research that seeks to determine how people make judgments and choices. The field considers perspectives from psychology, sociology, and economics; JDM researchers are found in psychology, management, economics, and marketing departments, as well as in schools of medicine, engineering, and public health. As this
The most frequently used experimental design type for research in industrial and organizational psychology and a number of allied fields is the nonexperiment. This design type differs from that of both the randomized experiment and the quasi-experiment in several important respects. Prior to describing the nonexperimental design type, we note that the article on experimental designs
Abuse refers to physical, sexual, or emotional harm to a person perpetrated by a relative, caregiver, or spouse, or others in a social relationship with the abused person. Common forms of abuse include intimate partner abuse, partner or marital rape, and elder abuse. All of these forms of abuse are typically contained within the broad
Bereavement refers to the experience of loss of a person through death. Grief is the most typical response of survivors to bereavement, while mourning is the expression by the bereaved of thoughts and feelings in culturally patterned ways. In our society, typical responses include confusion, despair, forgetfulness, sleep disturbances, extended periods of crying, and a
Caregiver burden is a term used to describe the physical, mental, social, and financial impact of caring for someone who is ill or who has functional impairments. Although the term can be applied to all care-givers (paid and unpaid), in most circumstances the term is applied to unpaid caregivers (called informal caregivers) who are usually
It has been estimated that nearly 50 million people in the United States are acknowledged caregivers and that as many as one in four individuals will be involved in caregiving duties at some point in their adult lives. Given the often cited “Graying of America” phenomenon, the number of caregivers will likely increase during the
The term change agent has been used generally to denote any person, activity, or experience that facilitates change. An alteration in both psychological and behavioral functioning is the expected result of the interplay between individual and organizational competencies, such as knowledge, skills, and awareness. The basis for measuring this change relates to movement along a
The therapeutic process holds both majesty and mystery for its participants. Client knowledge about the process ranges from total unfamiliarity with and/or misinformation about therapy—and what to expect of it—to the unique sophistication of the client who has entered into episodic therapy with several therapists. Given that individuals bring the sum of their past experiences
The clinical presenting issue is the brief description clients use to describe their reasons for seeking help when seeking psychological services. It is the initial clue encountered by psychologists in their efforts to help clients solve the problems that have brought them to therapy. The presenting issue may be complete and focused on the primary
Coping refers to a complex set of behaviors and cognitions that individuals use to deal with stress and adversity. The concepts of stress and adversity are explicitly linked to coping. Understanding coping is fundamental to understanding how stress affects people. The Nature of Coping Since the 1980s the most widely accepted definition of coping has
The continued growth of the elderly population in society has placed renewed focus on providing older adults with quality mental health care. The aging of the baby boomers in combination with research indicating that psychotherapy is effective with an older population highlights the need for those with expertise in counseling the elderly. Providing therapeutic services
Professional counseling is a skilled activity that involves assisting others in managing and resolving psychological, emotional, behavioral, developmental, relational, vocational, and other personal challenges (chronic or acute) in order to facilitate adjustment to changing life circumstances; promote personal growth, needs attainment, and overall wellness throughout the life span; and prevent the development of more serious
There has been considerable professional debate, in the United States and elsewhere, regarding the precise nature of the functions and roles fulfilled by counselors, therapists, psychotherapists, and others who provide mental health services. Professionals using different names, such as counseling psychologist, counselor, and therapist, are viewed quite differently by the lay public. Much of the
Couple and marital counseling helps couples, married or not, identify problems, manage difficulties, and ultimately improve their relationship. The intensity of an intimate relationship makes it one of the most important relationships one encounters in life. Because couple and marital counseling deals with two people and the dynamics that exist in their relationship, the counseling
Children are likely involved in disasters wherever they occur. For example, the much-studied 1972 Buffalo Creek flood in West Virginia left 125 dead, 52 of them children. Thousands of children were affected by the tsunami that devastated Southeast Asia in December 2005 and the terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001. Children
Communication is commonly defined as a transmission of thoughts, feelings, information, knowledge, and ideas by means of written or verbal messages. However, when people communicate face-to-face, they position their bodies in a certain way, vary their stance, control their eye gaze, and move their hands in particular manners. Therefore, there is an additional set of
One reflection of the explosion of technology in our lives is the increasing use of technology for delivering counseling and psychotherapy as well as other psychoeducational interventions. An individual can use the Internet to locate a counselor, to gain information about psychological conditions and treatments, to obtain counseling, and to share with others in chat
The theory of planned behavior, developed by Icek Ajzen, is a social cognitive theory that has guided a large majority of theory-based research on physical activity. The theory of planned behavior is an extension of the theory of reasoned action developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen in 1975. Since its introduction over 25 years
Professional practice based on reliable and valid empirical findings of effectiveness—empirically based professional practice (EBPP)—has increasingly influenced the work of mental health practitioners over the past two decades. The appeal of EBPP is based on the conviction that using evidence-based assessments and treatments in preference to those without empirical support makes sense, because EBPPs have
Thought stopping has its origins in the late 1950s and is a class of cognitive techniques (involving mental or behavioral aspects) commonly employed by sport psychologists to eliminate athletes’ recurring negative, self-defeating, or anxiety-related thoughts. Consequently, an underpinning foundation of thought-stopping techniques is the assumption that such thoughts are detrimental to task performance, to well-being
Action Identification Theory Definition People usually know what they are doing, intend to do, or have done in the past. How people achieve an unambiguous understanding of their behavior is rather remarkable when one considers the variety of ways in which any action can be identified. “Taking a test,” for example, could be identified as
Facilitative conditions are those conditions or counselor attitudes that enhance the therapeutic relationship and are conducive to successful outcomes in counseling and psychotherapy. The three primary facilitative conditions were first suggested by Carl R. Rogers in his 1951 publication on the person-centered counseling approach. These conditions are unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy. According to
Timing our actions is something we do thousands of times a day without thinking twice—controlling our eyes to read this text or reaching out to pick up a cup. To understand timing, however, it is first necessary to draw the distinction between the concept of time and timing. Timing is a human-made physical means of
Attachment Theory Definition An attachment refers to the strong emotional bond that exists between an infant and his or her caretaker. The attachment theory is designed to explain the evolution of that bond, its development, and its implications for human experience and relationships across the life course. Although attachment theory has primarily been a theory
Family counseling may be beneficial when a family member or several members of the family experience difficulties with communication, balancing home and work, the loss of a family member, trauma, divorce conflicts, issues in blended or remarried families, family violence, substance abuse, or behavioral or school problems in children. Family counselors practice in community mental
Individuals preparing for a career in sport and exercise psychology (SEP) have traditionally followed one of two educational paths, training in kinesiology or training in psychology. In keeping with most international credentialing guidelines for certification or licensure of SEP professionals, both educational paths typically feature substantial coursework in the other discipline, reflecting the interdisciplinary nature
Attribution Theory Definition Attribution theory—or rather, a family of attribution theories—is concerned with the question of how ordinary people explain human behavior. One type of attribution theory emphasizes people’s use of folk psychology to detect and understand internal states such as goals, desires, or intentions. People then use these inferred states to explain the behavior
Forgiveness occurs in an interpersonal context, as a response to the intentional harm caused by another. When one individual insults another, reveals confidential or embarrassing knowledge, harms another or another’s valued property, or is unfaithful to a committed partner, then the victim rightly feels that a moral transgression has occurred. One may seek justice to
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive method of activating regions of the brain by small electric currents generated by a magnetic pulse. Over the last 25 years, TMS has become an integral technique for studying brain function in humans in both healthy and diseased states and is a valid and reliable technique for investigating
Balance Theory Definition Balance theory describes the structure of people’s opinions about other individuals and objects as well as the perceived relation between them. The central notion of balance theory is that certain structures between individuals and objects are balanced, whereas other structures are imbalanced, and that balanced structures are generally preferred over imbalanced structures.
The profession of genetic counseling, a relative newcomer to the field of counseling, has been on the leading edge of innovation since its inception in the 1970s. Significant advances in medical technology over the past 40 years have led to breakthroughs in genetic testing along with subsequent improvements in the prevention, analysis, and treatment of
In sport, transfer of learning is generally defined as the influence of previous experience of performing a skill on the learning of a new skill or on performance of the same skill in a new context. This influence may be positive or negative. Positive transfer occurs when previous experience of performing a skill is beneficial
The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions was developed to explain why people experience positive emotions. What purpose might be served by fleeting feelings of joy, gratitude, serenity, or love? Did such pleasant states confer adaptive value over the course of human evolution? Within prior theories of emotions, positive emotions posed a puzzle. This was because
Gerontology is defined as the study of aging, focusing on the physical, social, and psychological aspects of older adulthood. In the most general sense, gerontology draws from diverse disciplines covering all aspects of the aging process in people and animals. Gerontology is made up of professionals from areas such as nursing, nutrition, psychology, medicine, pharmacology
Just as businesses and organizations require effective leadership behaviors in order to grow and develop successfully, it has been suggested that the same is required within families in order to foster a family climate that promotes healthy child development. Although a range of predictors are associated with child and adolescent health, arguably the family (and
Cognitive Dissonance Theory Definition Introduced by Leon Festinger in 1957—and since that time debated, refined, and debated again by psychologists—cognitive dissonance is defined as the aversive state of arousal that occurs when a person holds two or more cognitions that are inconsistent with each other. The concept of dissonance was once enormously controversial, but its
Youth homelessness is a complex problem exacerbated by the lack of available information regarding the unique circumstances experienced by these adolescents and further by the fact that this population is often hidden and therefore unnoticed by the general public and researchers. In any given year in the United States, 500,000 to 1.5 million youth will
The term transition has been employed in various academic fields to explain a process of changes in a certain phenomenon, such as economic, political, biological, and psychological changes. The concept of transition in psychology is closely related to individuals’ period of change and lifespan development based on one’s aging (e.g., retirement), development (e.g., entering to
A correspondent inference, sometimes also called a correspondent trait inference, is a judgment that a person’s personality matches or corresponds to his or her behavior. For example, if we notice that Taliyah is behaving in a friendly manner and we infer that she has a friendly personality, we have made, or drawn, a correspondent inference.
Mediation is a type of intervention meant to reduce or eliminate conflict among persons or parties who have opposing desires in a situation. For example, a family mediator may assist a couple going through a divorce to reach an agreement on the terms of the divorce in areas such as custody of children, settlement of
The Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change (TTM) was originally developed by James O. Prochaska and Carlo C. DiClemente for understanding the stages and processes of smoking cessation and over the past 3 decades has been broadly applied for understanding change across a variety of behaviors, including exercise and physical activity. The TTM was developed to
Dynamical Systems Theory Definition Emotions go up and down over the course of days. But sometimes emotions are more constant. For instance, depression could be characterized with fairly constant negative emotions across days. When will hearing some negative information lead a person into a depressed pattern? When will the same negative information just lead to
Normative issues are those based on intrapersonal and interpersonal concerns that could be expected to occur in the course of a life. When people think about issues that might compel someone to seek professional help, they often envision severe and potentially even life-threatening issues such as major depression, extreme anxiety, addiction, mania, debilitating phobias, and
Personality differences among individuals can be explained in relation to their individual differences in need patterns. Individuals possess various needs—very basic ones, such as the consumption of food and avoidance of pain; and secondary ones, such as achievement, affiliation, and dominance. These primary and secondary needs have the potential to influence an individual’s pattern of
Equity Theory Definition Equity theory posits that when it comes to relationships, two concerns stand out: (1) How rewarding are their societal, family, and work relationships? (2) How fair and equitable are those relationships? According to equity theory, people feel most comfortable when they are getting exactly what they deserve from their relationships—no more and
Occupational stress is a broad concept that has been defined in a variety of ways in the popular and professional literature. It is generally agreed that occupational stress consists of the harmful physical and psychological consequences to individuals that result when an imbalance exists between demands of the work environment and individual needs, abilities, and
In sports, optimal performance is only achievable if athletes recover after competition. Recovery and intense exercise must also be balanced with everyday life. Additionally, sufficient physiological and psychological recovery protects against overtraining. However, it is just a small step from regular daily practice to a high frequency of demanding events, which complicates the process of
Error Management Theory Definition One of the great challenges for humans is figuring out what is going on in other people’s minds. People don’t always disclose exactly what they are thinking, they can behave in very ambiguous ways, and sometimes they can be downright deceptive. For example, when a woman smiles at a man, is
Rehabilitation counseling is a process that is designed to assist people with disabilities in accomplishing their goals and in achieving independence and full participation in all aspects of community life. Rehabilitation counseling is also a recognized counseling profession, with a long history and established professional credentialing procedures. It is variously conceptualized as a specialty within
A verbal protocol or verbal report is a cognitive task analysis (CTA) technique designed to elicit a verbalizable report of an individual’s thinking during task performance. Verbal protocols are typically elicited by trained researchers as a means to access information heeded (attended) during task performance; this is usually for the purpose of understanding the mental
Escape Theory Definition Escape theory refers to the tendency for people to engage in behaviors to avoid an unpleasant psychological reaction. Whereas the common use of the term escape suggests physically removing oneself from a physical location (such as escaping from prison), escape theory is used to describe behaviors that enable a person to flee
The therapeutic relationship is central to counselors’ work with clients. The therapeutic relationship is the association, rapport, and connection between a counselor and client. The establishment of the therapeutic relationship begins with the joining process, wherein the counselor and client get to know each other and clarify the need and purpose for counseling. The therapeutic
Vision is the process of seeing and perceiving the surrounding environment by using information contained in light. Appropriate visual information is imperative for almost every sporting task to ensure that athletes are able to monitor the actions of others, while also perceiving their position in relation to targets, such as balls, nets, and walls, and the
Ever heard of overreacting? Such as when lovers, after yelling their heads off arguing, make up and experience unusually strong sexual pleasures? Or when a disagreement escalates from silly to serious, prompts an exchange of insults, and ends with bloody noses? Or when the girl who went along to a horror movie is so terrified
In addition to their typical developmental issues, children and adolescents currently face many challenges to their healthy growth and development. According to the American School Counselor Association (ASCA), school counselors accept responsibility for helping all children and adolescents make age- or grade- appropriate progress in their personal, social, educational, and career development. School counselors also
A motor phenomenon affecting golfers, the yips consist of involuntary movements during the performance of shots requiring fine motor control, such as chipping and putting. Although the yips are mainly reported by golfers, the psychological characteristics of a small group of cricket bowlers who experience yips-like symptoms have also been reported, suggesting the condition is
Implicit Personality Theory Definition An implicit personality theory refers to a person’s notions about which personality characteristics tend to co-occur in people. Can one assume, for example, that a person with a sense of humor is also intelligent? Is a charming person likely to be honest or dishonest? Is a leader someone likely to be
Self-disclosure refers to the verbal disclosure of personally sensitive information by client or counselor, and may involve disclosure about actions, thoughts, or feelings. The necessity of client self-disclosure in counseling has a long tradition, beginning with Sigmund Freud, who asserted that clients should disclose everything that comes to mind. This expectation persists to the current
Feedback, or response-produced feedback, consists of all the information an individual receives as a result of a practice trial of a motor skill, classically divided into two parts—intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic feedback is all of the information one receives naturally, such as vision, audition, and proprioception. Extrinsic feedback is information provided over and above intrinsic
Inoculation Theory Definition Inoculation theory was devised by William McGuire in the early 1960s as a strategy to protect attitudes from change—to confer resistance to counterattitudinal influences, whether such influences take the form of direct attacks or sustained pressures. Nature of Inoculation Theory Inoculation theory consists of two elements: threat and refutational preemption. The threat
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have developed uniform, nonlegal definitions for sexual violence and related terms in an effort to standardize the reporting and study of these crimes. Inclusionary criteria are broad and divide these crimes into five categories, which include (1) completed nonconsensual sex acts, including penetration, to any degree, of
Coordination is something we all take for granted— at least until it breaks down under extreme stress (as it does sometimes in competition) or following an insult or disease to the brain, or even when body parts are injured or replaced. So to understand coordination scientifically, we must somehow make the familiar strange—akin perhaps to
Interdependence Theory Definition Interdependence theory describes the structural properties that characterize interactions and the implications of such structure for human psychology. Whereas most psychological theories focus on the individual, suggesting that people behave as they do because of their unique experiences or cognitions or personalities, interdependence theory regards the relationships between people as important as
Social support has been one of the most widely examined constructs in social science research since the 1970s, although the concept originated over a century ago. Social support is defined as those social interactions or relationships that provide individuals with actual assistance or that embed individuals within a social system believed to provide love, caring
Various laws of movement learning and control have been proposed on the basis of research. In this entry, the focus is on three of the most firmly established of these laws: the law of practice, Fitts’s law, and Hick’s law. These laws are of interest to sport and exercise psychologists because they specify relatively simple
Learning Theory Definition The meaning of this term seems simple: Learning theory is the theory about how learning is achieved. Unfortunately, things are not that simple. A fundamental problem is that the term learning theory seems to suggest that there is a single, true theory of learning. Although one cannot exclude the possibility that such
The impact of exercise and sport on our society is pervasive. They are relevant topics for study both because of their societal importance and because they exert a significant influence on physical and psychosocial development across the life span. This entry provides a brief history of exercise and sport psychology, examines the relationship between counseling
The Abecedarian Research Project was an intensive research program designed to study the effect of high-quality educational child care on children from low-income families. Researchers selected infants from low-income families who were found to be at particularly high risk for educational failure because of low maternal educational levels. The participants received full-time, high-quality educational intervention
Logical Positivism Definition Logical positivism, also called logical empiricism, was an early 20th-century philosophical movement that held that a statement was meaningful only if it could be verified or confirmed through experience. Logical positivism relied exclusively on observable events for knowledge about the world, and therefore considered non-observable events to be basically meaningless. In other
The technical definition of induced abortion is the removal of products of conception from the uterus of a pregnant woman. Throughout recorded history, there is evidence that women have found the means to limit and space their childbearing through the use of induced abortion. Women of all identities and living in a wide variety of
Narcissistic Reactance Theory Definition The narcissistic reactance theory of sexual coercion and rape explains how the personality of rapists intersects with situational factors to produce reactance. Reactance is a psychological motive to reassert one’s sense of freedom when freedom has been denied. In the case of rape, some men will desire sex more after they
Humans must rely on intrinsic cognitive functions for logical conclusions in a variety of situations. Abstract reasoning is a cognitive mechanism for reaching logical conclusions in the absence of physical data, concrete phenomena, or specific instances. Abstract reasoning is essentially a generalization about relationships and attributes as opposed to concrete objects. The capacity for abstract
Objectification Theory Definition Objectification theory is a framework for understanding the experience of being female in a culture that sexually objectifies the female body. The theory proposes that girls and women, more so than boys and men, are socialized to internalize an observer’s perspective as their primary view of their physical selves. This perspective is
According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, children’s thinking occurs as they begin to adapt to their environment in increasingly satisfactory ways. Schemes are the techniques that children employ during adaptation. Schemes are patterns of actions that children transfer or generalize by repeating them under similar circumstances or to meet recurring needs. Schemes can be
Opponent Process Theory Definition Richard L. Solomon’s opponent process theory of emotions—also commonly referred to as the opponent process theory of acquired motivation—contends that the primary or initial reaction to an emotional event (State A) will be followed by an opposite secondary emotional state (State B). In other words, a stimulus that initially inspires displeasure
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is an advanced stage of infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS was first identified in 1981 in the United States and was subsequently identified around the world. HIV disease begins by causing the failure of the immune system, the development of any of a set of opportunistic infections
“Everyone needs to belong.” “Everyone needs to be unique.” That both of these statements are true is the basis for Marilynn Brewer’s theory of optimal distinctiveness, which helps explain why people join social groups and become so attached to the social categories they are part of. Optimal distinctiveness theory is about social identity—how people come
An individual’s ability to live independently is often determined by that person’s capacity for self-care and ability to engage in various activities of daily living (ADLs). Basic or self-care ADLs include such everyday behaviors as attention to hygiene, bathing, dressing, feeding, and toileting. Complex or instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) include such tasks as
Prospect Theory Definition Prospect theory is a psychological account that describes how people make decisions under conditions of uncertainty. These may involve decisions about nearly anything where the outcome of the decision is somewhat risky or uncertain, from deciding whether to buy a lottery ticket, to marry one’s current romantic partner, to undergo chemotherapy treatment
Human actions are the fundamental phenomena that all theories of knowing, learning, and development aspire to explain. However, most theories do not explain concrete individual actions, but provide probabilistic estimates for central tendencies. Most theories also consider actions as expressions and causal consequences of underlying, hidden social or psychological phenomena. Activity theory, on the other
Between the borders of Pakistan and India lies a fertile valley known as Kashmir. Since 1947, India and Pakistan have fought three wars over this valuable territory. Unfortunately, the wars have contributed to hostilities and prejudice experienced by people on both sides. These tensions can be described by the realistic group conflict theory (RGCT). RGCT
Acupuncture is the medical practice of inserting needles into specific acupoints for the purpose of treating disease. Acupuncture is part of a larger body of eastern health care that includes herbal pharmacy, moxibustion, electrostimulation, massage, fitness exercises including Tai Qi and Qi Gong, meditation, and dietary habits. Each of these features of eastern health care
Reasoned Action Theory Definition The theory of reasoned action (TRA) is a model for predicting people’s behavior, which states that the best predictor of people’s behavior in any given situation is their intention to perform the behavior. Not surprisingly, the best predictor of whether people will actually do something is whether they intend to do
Adaptation takes place simultaneously, and in many ways, it is a complementary process to organization. Like organization, adaptation is a process that has its theoretical roots in biology, which also reflects Piaget’s early training as a biologist. Adaptation is the individual’s adjustment to the environment. The plant and animal kingdom abound with examples of adaptation
Reductionism Definition Reductionism means that complex principles can be reduced to simpler or more fundamental principles. Social psychologists often oppose reductionism and emphasize instead the social context that surrounds the individual. There are two basic types of reductionism: psychological and methodological. Psychological Reductionism One can often identify reductionism with the mind-body problem, which is the
Alfred Adler was a physician and psychologist who created the Individual Psychology movement. Adler wrote 19 books and many articles and papers. He gave numerous lectures and demonstrations internationally. He was born in Rudolfsheim, Austria, and he had rickets as a young child. In his later description of the development of personality, physiologic and environmental
For centuries, the hedonic principle that people approach pleasure and avoid pain has been the dominant motivational principle for many disciplines and across all areas of psychology. Even when Sigmund Freud discussed the need to go beyond the pleasure principle because people were controlled by the reality principle—environmental demands—he was simply modifying the pleasure principle
Adolescence is the transitional period of growth, development, and maturation that begins at the end of childhood (about 10 years of age). The onset of puberty can begin as early as age 8 or as late as age 15 in girls and as early as age 9.5 years and as late as age 15 in boys.
Relational Models Theory Definition The relational models theory describes the four fundamental forms of social relationships: communal sharing, authority ranking, equality matching, and market pricing. People in communal sharing relationships feel that they have something essential in common, whereas outsiders are different. Participants in an authority ranking relationship see themselves as ordered in a legitimate
Adoption is a complex family form that touches the lives of many. In a national survey of adoption attitudes conducted by the Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute, 64% of respondents indicated that a family member or close friend had either been adopted, had adopted, or had placed a child for adoption. Despite the large numbers
“All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players”: With these lines from As You Like It, William Shakespeare succinctly captured the essence of role theory. In short, people’s behavior stems from the parts they play in life. In social psychology, a role is defined as the collection of expectations that
Advance directive is the general term used to describe statements given in advance of incapacitating illness regarding how individuals want medical decisions made for them if they become too ill to speak for themselves. Advance directives come in two basic forms. Proxy advance directives (e.g., a durable power of attorney for health care) designate a
Scapegoat Theory Definition Scapegoat theory refers to the tendency to blame someone else for one’s own problems, a process that often results in feelings of prejudice toward the person or group that one is blaming. Scapegoating serves as an opportunity to explain failure or misdeeds, while maintaining one’s positive self-image. If a person who is
Historically, African Americans have been studied and explained as compared with the values and characteristics of Europeans. The term African American is an Afrocentric word adopted as a label for people who live in the United States and are descendants of slaves and who share the legacy of bondage, segregation, and legal discrimination. Their ancestors
Self-Affirmation Theory Definition The self-affirmation theory posits that people have a fundamental motivation to maintain self-integrity, a perception of themselves as good, virtuous, and able to predict and control important outcomes. In virtually all cultures and historical periods, there are socially shared conceptions of what it means to be a person of self-integrity. Having self-integrity
After-school programs (ASPs) are those programs available to children 6 to 18 years of age that are characterized by structure, adult supervision, and an emphasis on skill building. ASPs tend to be voluntary, hold regular and scheduled meetings, and emphasize developmentally based expectations and rules for the participants. In most cases, ASPs are organized around
Self-categorization theory addresses the problem of the psychological group. Are there such things as psychological groups? How do they form? How is a collection of individuals able to act, think, and feel as a group, collectively, as if, in the extreme, the group members shared a common mind? It is taken for granted that human
Robert Butler is credited with originating the term ageism in 1968. Ageism involves negative attitudes and discriminatory practices against individuals based on age. Such attitudes and practices often result in age discrimination, specifically against older individuals. Ageism has been evidenced in our media’s excessive emphasis on youth, in our medical and mental health fields, and
The self-determination theory (SDT), formulated by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, is a broad theory of human motivation for which the concept of basic or universal psychological needs for competence, relatedness, and self-determination and the differentiation of types of motivation (autonomous, controlled) are central and defining features. SDT posits that the type, rather
Robert N. Butler first introduced the term ageism to refer to prejudice and discrimination against older people based on the belief that aging makes people less attractive, intelligent, sexual, and productive. Ageism comprises three distinguishable yet interconnected aspects: (1) prejudicial attitudes toward older adults, old age, and the aging process; (2) discriminatory practices that focus
Self-discrepancy theory was developed in an attempt to answer the following question: Why is it that when people are emotionally overwhelmed by tragedies or serious setbacks in their lives—such as the death of their child, the loss of their jobs, or the break-up of their marriages—some suffer from depression whereas others suffer from anxiety? Even
Aggressive behavior often poses problems in humans across the life span, both as initiators and recipients of aggression. The study of the causes of and methods to reduce aggression is vital, especially with regard to the psychological development of children and adolescents. Definitions Aggression is a verbal or physical behavior that involves delivery of a
Self-Expansion Theory Definition Close relationships open up new worlds to people. As you interact with roommates, close friends, and relationship partners in college, you will probably start to notice small parts of yourself changing to become a little more like them and vice versa. For example, you might notice that you start taking more interest
Aging is inevitable. Although the average life expectancy has increased dramatically in recent years, we have yet to discover the proverbial fountain of youth. As such, our body gradually succumbs to the aging process. This process is so powerful that it inundates every aspect of life, from changes in appearance and limited physical mobility to
In everyday life, people observe other people’s actions and behaviors and make inferences about others’ attitudes based on what they observe. When people see how another person acts in a particular situation, they often attribute the behavior to the person’s traits and attitudes. For example, if you view someone in a park recycling a plastic
Throughout our life span, the family is one of the most stable and reliable relationships we experience. Aging parents in America are thriving within the context of their families. Despite the empirical support for this statement, negative stereotypes about older families persist. It is not uncommon to hear about the threats accruing to aging parents
The self-verification theory proposes that people want others to see them as they see themselves. For example, just as those who see themselves as relatively extraverted want others to see them as extraverted, so too do those who see themselves as relatively introverted want others to recognize them as introverts. The theory grew out of
Most adults want to live long, in good health, and with an overall sense of well-being. Aging well describes this goal by promoting positive images and approaches to human aging. Aging well, as opposed to a difficult old age, is the outcome of personal lifestyle choices and behaviors in interaction with supportive physical, social, and
Sexual Economics Theory Definition Sexual economics theory is an idea about how men and women think, feel, respond, and behave in a sexual context. More specifically, this theory says that men’s and women’s sexual thoughts, feelings, preferences, and behavior follow fundamental economic principles. The basic premise is that sex is something that women have and
Mary Dinsmore Salter was born on December 1, 1913, in Glendale, Ohio, but grew up in Toronto, Canada. As a psychology student at the University of Toronto, she became drawn to William Blatz’s “security theory,” which inspired her dissertation, completed in 1939. After a stint as instructor at the University of Toronto, Mary entered the
Sexual Strategies Theory Definition Strategies are the means people use to achieve goals. If the goal is to obtain food, for example, one strategy might be to hunt, another strategy to gather, and a third strategy to scavenge. Sexual strategies are the means people use to achieve sexual or mating goals. Humans have evolved a
Social Exchange Theory Definition Social exchange theory is a broad social psychological perspective that attempts to explain how human social relationships are formed, maintained, and terminated. The basic premise of this theory is that how people feel about a given interaction or relationship depends fundamentally on the outcomes that they perceive to be associated with
Social Identity Theory Definition and History Social identity theory explains how the self-concept is associated with group membership and group and intergroup behavior. I t defines group membership in terms of people’s identification, definition, and evaluation of themselves as members of a group (social identity) and specifies cognitive, social interactive and societal processes that interact
Job sharing, sometimes called work sharing, generally refers to the practice of having two or more people share a single full-time position, each working part-time. It can also refer to two or more people sharing a single budget line, but doing unrelated work. Job sharing has been applied as a solution to several different situations
The traditional view of career, what one does on the job at work and the sequence of work-related positions throughout a person’s work history, has given rise to a holistic paradigm called career/life that includes the time and energy put into multiple roles simultaneously played throughout one’s life. Each role has the potential of positive
Narrative career counseling represents a shift from the 20th-century focus on objective interventions for career decision making toward a 21st-century concern for interpretive approaches. It is sited in postmodern developments where previous grand theories overemphasize either social structures (e.g., Marxism) or individual psychology (e.g., psychoanalysis). Narrative career counseling moves away from a scientific approach that
Occupational information is one of the major components needed to make effective career decisions. Occupational information refers to the collection of details about occupational and educational opportunities. Gathering and using occupational information is essential if an individual is to select options that fit his or her interests, values, aptitudes, and skills. Occupational information can include
The Occupational Information Network (O*NET) is the United States Department of Labor’s online successor to the Dictionary of Occupation Titles (DOT). The O*NET is intended to provide a reference responsive to the rapidly changing world of work. The O*NET is an ever-evolving resource due to ongoing data collection efforts intended to expand its information coverage
Part-time work refers to work performed by laborers who work less than the standard number of hours and who are often ineligible to participate in an organization’s benefit plans. Many organizations need part-time workers to be successful. Organizations use part-time workers for several reasons: to meet the demands of the labor-intensive economy and cyclical economic
Pay equity is based on the principle that the payment an employee receives from the employer should be proportional to his or her contributions to the organization. Otherwise, inequity results. Historically, pay equity has been approached by two somewhat separate perspectives: (1) the individual or psychological perspective, which focuses on how individuals form pay equity
Personal counseling and career counseling share a significant history. Vocational or career counseling started with the work of Frank Parsons and his staff at the Vocation Bureau of Boston in 1908. Parsons would die shortly after the bureau began operations, but not before the term counseling emerged to describe the services provided to clients of
Career counselors working in private practices typically provide services to individual and organizational clients. The services most often rendered to individuals include assistance with career decision making and planning, coaching, and securing employment. Organizations most often retain private practitioners to assist with staffing decisions, developing succession plans and programs, and outplacement. Many career counselors’ private
Process and outcome research are two interconnected research methodologies that identify the processes that go on in counseling sessions and the effectiveness of these processes in outcomes for clients. Specifically, process research identifies the counseling variables involved in client change, while outcome research identifies the actual changes that occur. Moreover, following the definition of psychotherapy
Anne Roe (1904—1991) was born and raised in Denver, Colorado. Upon graduating from the University of Denver, she attended Columbia University, following the recommendation of Thomas Garth. At Columbia, Roe worked in the office of Edward Lee Thorndike, graduating with her Ph.D. in experimental psychology under the supervision of Robert S. Woodworth. The publication of
Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) seeks to explain three interrelated aspects of career development: (1) how basic academic and career interests develop, (2) how educational and career choices are made, and (3) how academic and career success is obtained. Developed by Robert W. Lent, Steven D. Brown, and Gail Hackett in 1994, SCCT incorporates a
Career counseling is a dynamic process of helping clients explore how aspects of their identity may relate to their career decision making or ability to cope with work difficulties. Although researchers have examined how a wide range of personal and relational variables relate to career development, few studies have explored how spirituality, which can be
Training refers to activities designed to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes relevant to performance in an occupation. Training is a major investment for many organizations, with developmental activities occurring at all levels of the organization and at various career stages. A major goal of training is often to improve organizational outcomes (e.g.
The majority of youth enter the world of work prior to receiving postsecondary education or training. By age 26, 85% of youth receive a high school diploma; however, only 27% receive a 4-year college degree. The economic consequences of being in the world of work without a college degree in the United States are staggering.
Balancing the demands and domains of work and family life presents major challenges for individuals, couples, and families. Career counselors and all counseling professionals must be able to comprehend and assist people to deal with issues of work-family balance. This article considers work-family balance from the perspectives of history and career intervention. History of Work-Family
Work now more than ever consumes large portions of people’s lives. The importance of work in people’s lives, alongside the demands on one’s time and energy, can be a tremendous source of stress. Increases in work stress may result from people having longer work hours, threats of job loss due to organization downsizing, or a
It is generally accepted that there are three or four things that contribute to success and satisfaction at work or in a career. Skills or abilities are foundations of success; interests and work values are the sources of satisfaction. Skills and abilities and interests are generally understood by people seeking jobs; work values are less
Civil rights have been generally defined as affirmative legal promises governments make to protect the privileges and power of a specified group of people or citizens of a nation. Civil rights movements have been the way by which many marginalized groups have gained legal protection against discriminatory actions. The laws protecting the civil rights of
Confidentiality is the legal and ethical duty of therapists not to reveal information about their clients to unauthorized individuals. Legally and ethically, therapists are bound by statute and by the profession’s code of professional conduct not to reveal information about their clients to unauthorized individuals. Legally and ethically, clients have the right to prevent their
According to the nonprofit resource center Class Action, classism can be defined as the systematic assignment of characteristics of worth and ability based on social class and the systematic oppression of subordinated groups (people without endowed or acquired economic power, social influence, and privilege) by the dominant groups (those who have access to control of
At the heart of the counseling profession is the all-important relationship between the professional counselor and the individual, couple, group, or family seeking help. Because the relationship itself is so central to the helping process, ethical concerns and obligations are especially salient and compelling. This relationship entails an important power differential between the professional and
A child custody evaluation, also known as a parental responsibility evaluation, is a process by which recommendations are made to a family court with respect to the best interests of a child. They may include responses to parents’ requests for parenting time or access to their children as well as evaluations of who should have
Ethical issues are often complicated and multifaceted and can be challenging for counselors if they attempt to create simple solutions when dealing with difficult issues. Many ethical issues are gray, not black and white, and it is common for biases and personal values, beliefs, and morality to enter the decision-making process. As a result, ethical
Counselors make hundreds of decisions as they work with clients. They use professional skills and knowledge to gather information in order to assess, clarify, categorize, and respond to client concerns. Most often, counselors, after some consideration and reflection, know how, or if, to respond to situations. Yet, on occasion, counselors may find themselves facing uncertainty
Technology in counseling began with the advent of the desktop computer over 30 years ago. Success in computer-aided services for career counseling and increased comfort with technology were factors in the computer becoming a mainstay in the therapeutic setting. Research has found that the computer enhances counseling services in the areas of testing and assessment
Ethical issues in social science research are of crucial importance not only to the individuals involved, but also to society. An understanding of what is and is not permissible arose through decades of debate beginning immediately after World War II, when information regarding how Nazi scientists treated prisoners in their care became general knowledge due
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a federal law that ensures that all children ages birth through 21 receive a free and appropriate public school education regardless of the severity or type of their disability. Before this law was passed, many children with disabilities were excluded entirely from participation in public education or
Informed consent in counseling and psychotherapy refers to the process by which clients or prospective clients receive information about the proposed treatment and subsequently decide whether to provide consent for the counselor or therapist to proceed with the treatment. Historically, informed consent requirements were applied to surgery and other medical procedures; later these requirements were
The legal issues regarding parenting can be, and often are, highly complicated and controversial issues, needing to be addressed within the following categories: custody, adoption, parenting by unmarried couples, and rights and responsibilities of parents. Understanding how these variables interact is important, because many individuals experiencing problems in their relationships will seek help through counseling.
The concept of oppression has been written about by scholars and educators in various fields. Oppression has been defined as a system that allows access to the services, rewards, benefits, and privileges of society based on membership in a particular group. Oppression involves the abuse of power whereby a dominant group engages in unjust, harsh
A little more than a decade after the demands for Black, Latino/a, and women studies on college campuses across the nation in the late 1960s, universities witnessed a new articulation of inclusion. With the rise of hate speech and racially motivated incidents on campuses in the 1980s and 1990s, universities began to find ways to
Prejudice has been defined as a preformed adverse judgment or opinion that is not grounded in knowledge, or an irrational suspicion or hatred of a particular group, race, or religion. In legal terms, prejudice has been defined as an irrational hostile attitude directed against an individual, a group, a race, or their supposed characteristics. Prejudicial
Prescription privileges refers to the right to prescribe medication. The psychologist prescription privilege (PPP) debate refers to legal and ethical arguments for and against a psychologist prescribing medication. Presently, there are legal avenues by which a psychologist may earn the right to prescribe medication. A psychologist could elect to earn a supplemental degree in such
Racial categorization is a central construct within American society and, as such, has had an enduring impact on all levels of social relations. Given the hierarchical social structure within the United States, racism has emerged as a logical outcome of a society based on and structured around race. A growing appreciation of the social and
Reversed racism is a controversial contention in which members of a dominant racial group allege racism and discrimination targeted toward them by, or on behalf of, a subordinate or minority racial group. That is, members of a dominant racial group contend that they are being victimized on the basis of their race. Reversed racism can
It has been called the world’s oldest oppression: sexism. Sexism is the name given to the systematic oppression of women. In its most obvious forms, sexism includes conscious, deliberate, and overt discrimination against women, such as denying women the right to vote or own property, as was the practice in the United States in the
Sexual harassment remains a common occupational hazard for women. It is estimated that over half of all women will experience some form of sexual harassment during college and/or their working lives. Women in male-dominated workplaces, in blue-collar jobs, or who are marginalized due to their race, sexual orientation, or social class often experience higher rates
Social class is implicated in almost every facet of the human experience, but for counselors and other mental health care providers, social class is difficult to understand. A lack of theoretical clarity between social class and socioeconomic status, not connecting classism as a function of social class, and psychologists’ use of a sociological framework to
Social justice refers to the promotion of full and equal participation of all individuals and groups, allowing their needs to be met equally. Most societies around the world have fallen short of creating conditions of social justice. This is evidenced by the existence of marginalization in many societies, as evidenced by the fact that many
Self-doubt has been defined as uncertainty about one’s abilities, potential for success, or competence in performance situations. As self-doubt concerning personal abilities increases, global self-esteem tends to decrease because self-doubt presents the threat to global evaluations of oneself. Hence, self-doubt can lead to both self-handicapping (i.e., creating or claiming obstacles that reduce the probability of
Self-efficacy is a construct introduced by Albert Bandura, arguably among the most eminent cognitive psychologists of the 20th century. Based on his clinical work (mostly dealing with helping people overcome their anxiety and phobias to such things as snakes), Bandura proposed a social cognitive theory (SCT) to explain and predict psychological changes achieved by different
A self-fulfilling prophecy can be defined as a prediction that sets in motion a series of events that ultimately causes the original prediction to become true. Within the sport setting, the self-fulfilling prophecy theory has been used to describe how and why the expectations that individuals (e.g., coaches) form about others (e.g., athletes) can serve
Self-handicapping is a future-oriented, self-protection strategy used to (a) maintain personal perceptions of competence, control, self-worth, and self-esteem and/or (b) protect or enhance one’s public image in the eyes of coactors or observers. It consists of thoughts, statements, and behaviors that take place in advance of performance, and that increase the likelihood of situational factors
The history of transpersonal psychology spans several decades, emerging from the confluence of humanistic psychology and spiritual traditions to address transcendent experiences and states of consciousness. This article traces the origins of the field, beginning with its philosophical and psychological precursors, including the influence of Eastern spiritual traditions and early thinkers like William James and
Self-monitoring reflects the regulation of individuals’ expressive behavior, self-presentation, and nonverbal displays of affect in social situations. With a grounding in theories of self, Mark Snyder advanced the study of self-monitoring to heighten understanding of dispositional (i.e., stable) versus situational influences on behavior. Self-Monitoring Orientations At its core, the construct of self-monitoring is embedded in
Ancient Greek thought, as expressed both in philosophy and the arts, is pervasively influenced by the Homeric epics the Iliad and the Odyssey. The psychological perspectives of the ancient world are comparably indebted, for these poems are at once studies of character (“personality”) and of the conditions that impel action, distort perception, cause thoughts and
In their seminal article, Barbara Fredrickson and Tomi-Ann Roberts posited that gender socialization and contextual experiences predispose individuals to internalize cultural standards shaping how meaning is ascribed to one’s body. Rooted in sociocultural approaches to the psychology of women, self-objectification is the tendency to introject an external observer’s perspective on one’s body, evaluating it in
Greek settlement of the Aegean islands and coastal cities of Asia Minor was prompted initially by scarcity on the mainland and by attractive trading prospects. The first written versions of Homer’s epics would be composed in Ionia, whose Greek colonists were further inclined toward philosophy by daily contact with radically different cultures based on radically
Self-presentation, also referred to as impression motivation, is the process whereby individuals attempt to monitor and control how other people perceive them—that is, they attempt to portray a specific image (or impression) to others. In general, people try to present truthful images of themselves to others. However, in any specific situation, they may choose to