A news cycle is a round of coverage once measured in the number of hours between each issue of a newspaper. The term originated in the United States, and the Oxford English Dictionary dates the earliest use to a 1922 Los Angeles Times article. Major metropolitan newspapers back then published multiple editions daily, but smaller
News workers are those engaged in the production of the written, visual, or audio texts designated as news and information appearing in print media and on broadcast and cable television, radio, and the Internet. These workers assign, report, research, write, and edit reports as well as produce and assemble visual images and the graphic forms
The newspaper is the oldest and arguably the most important of all media for journalism. More journalists work in newspapers than in any other media. Moreover, dominant ideas of news – as a factual, independent account of the day’s principal events, set out in an ordered way for a geographically defined audience – emerged historically
Online journalism involves the delivery of news content through a networked, digital medium. The Internet and world wide web are primary vehicles for online journalism, but other options include mobile phones, personal digital assistants, and other devices. The question of whether those not traditionally considered journalists can or do produce journalism is important but unresolved.
Peace journalism is an attempt at persuasive communication, usually by a social movement, to advocate in favor of ending war and violence. Journalism that advocates reforms such as social justice, the abolition of slavery, woman suffrage, and, most centrally, international peace has flourished in the United States, partly because of the press freedom the First
Political journalists, viewed through the lens of the editorial organization, are those who report on political affairs or work on the political desk. This perspective foregrounds organizational factors in news production, particularly the division of labor in the editorial process. Typical Anglo-American newsrooms make a functional distinction between news gatherers (reporters) and news processors (editors)
Precision journalism is the use of social and behavioral science research methods to gather and analyze data, bringing a level of rigor to journalistic work beyond anecdotal evidence. Although it can be practiced without computers, precision journalism is usually a subset of “computer-assisted reporting,” the catch-all term for anything from using the Internet for gathering
Newsmakers arrange a press conference to announce news to groups of reporters. The meetings vary in size, setting, and subject. Some detail plans and decisions. Others promise surprise revelations. A common feature distinguishes all press conferences: the opportunity for reporters to question a newsmaker. The most familiar are those of presidents, prime ministers, and crisis
Printers acted as editors from the origin of printing in eastern and western society. But Gutenberg’s press in the mid-fifteenth century gave birth to journalistic printer-editors who published news regularly and informed a wide public. These early journalists used book production techniques to generate broadsheets, pamphlets, mercuries, intelligencers, gazettes, and newsbooks (Boyce et al. 1978).
The professionalization of journalism refers to the process by which a category of workers engaged in reporting and commentary in the public media on current events and ideas achieves the status of the occupational professional. Key issues in understanding the professionalization of journalism center on the difficulties in defining “professionalization” itself; the historical differences between
The Hall Occupational Orientation Inventory (HALL), first published in 1968, was developed by Lacy G. Hall to provide a more complete assessment of work-related personality variables than do the extant standardized interest inventories. Hall based the development of this inventory on the humanistic personality need theory elaborated by Abraham Maslow and adapted by Anne Roe
The Level I: Life Style Inventory (LSI) was originally developed by J. Clayton Lafferty in 1973. The Level I: LSI is described as a self-assessment of 12 different thinking and behavioral styles of interest to members of work organizations. This form of the LSI has a total of 240 items, with 20 items assessing each
The Minnesota Clerical Test (MCT) first was published under the title of the Minnesota Vocational Test for Clerical Workers in 1933 for use in the selection of clerical personnel and to provide career guidance information. The instrument has remained unchanged since its first publication. The MCT is a brief test, taking 15 minutes to complete.
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) is a 567-item, true-or-false measure of personality and psychological symptoms. It can be administered individually or in a group format, via booklet or on a computer. It requires roughly a sixth-grade reading level. Audiocassette versions are available for individuals with reading difficulties, vision problems, or physical disabilities that affect
Occupational classification systems are schemas for grouping jobs and job data. Government agencies often use occupational classification systems to standardize the way job data are collected and how jobs are described. For example, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) uses a standard classification structure to collect and sort national job data, such as wages
The Personal Globe Inventory (PGI) is a new interest inventory based on a spherical model of interests that measures activity preferences, activity competence beliefs, and occupational preferences. The PGI is unique in that it explicitly incorporates prestige as a prominent factor in interest assessment. Through the use of innovative features in profile interpretation, the PGI
The Rokeach Values Survey (RVS) was originally developed in 1973 by Milton Rokeach. The RVS is one of the most extensively used measures of human values and is utilized by career counselors to assess clients’ values as they relate to the world of work. The RVS is a 36-item inventory consisting of 18 terminal values
The Sixteen Personality Questionnaire (16PF) is one of the oldest commercially available measures of normal adult personality. It is used in a variety of settings, including personnel selection, counseling, career development, and outplacement consulting. The inventory has also been utilized extensively in academic settings to advance the understanding of personality structure, its roots, and predictive
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is an individually administered assessment of intelligence and cognitive abilities. The Stanford-Binet has a wide variety of uses, including school placement, determining the presence of a learning disability or developmental delay, and tracking intellectual development. Although undergoing various revisions, this assessment tool is the oldest and most influential test of its
Although rarely used by career counselors and practitioners, traditional projective techniques are experiencing a renaissance because they provide a long-tested method of assessing stories and narratives, which are becoming the focus of career and narrative practitioners. These approaches, long overshadowed by quantitative methods, are providing new ground for exploration and explanation of individuals’ career trajectories
New World monkeys (NWMs), also known as platyrrhines, live in tropical forest environments from southern Mexico down through South America. The name platyrrhine comes from the broad, flat, external nose characteristic of this group of primates. There are more than 50 species of NWMs, all of which are predominantly arboreal and herbivorous. NWMs are divided
Old World monkeys (OWMs) are one of two major groups of monkeys, consisting of all primates belonging to the family Cercopithecidae. The family is composed of 18 genera and approximately 90 species, including baboons, colobines, guenons, and macaques. OWMs are found throughout large portions of Africa and Asia, living in a wide range of habitats.
Monogamy refers to the norm or condition of a single male mating with a single female by forming a “pair bond,” with both defending territory and caring for the young. The need to care for the young necessitates many of the species to enter into monogamous relationships. For example, monogamous male parent birds care for
Some might consider Ashley Montagu to be the original sociobiologist, but either they misunderstand the subject or they misunderstand the man. Actually, many of his numerous publications were critical analyses exposing the pseudobiology underlying sociopolitical issues such as racism, sexism, and ageism as well as more general questions about human nature, the nature-nurture controversy, and
Lewis Henry Morgan was an influential 19th-century ethnologist who dedicated most of his career to kinship studies. He documented an extensive amount of valuable written and physical material on the Iroquoian culture. Morgan was born on November 21, 1818. He grew up in a farmhouse close to Aurora, New York, and enrolled at the Cayuga
Michel Eyquem de Montaigne was influential as a Renaissance courtier during the reign of Charles IX and, especially, as the author of Essais, through which he introduced a new literary form impressive for personal candor and humane skepticism. Montaigne was born on the family estate Château de Montaigne in Perigord near Bordeaux, France. His father
For decades, there has been a consensus on the migration of people through the Americas. Some 12,000 years ago, as the end of the last Ice Age approached, big game hunters followed mammoth and caribou from Siberia across the Bering Land Bridge into North America. These earliest people, called Paleoindians, settled into the interior plains
The Yale University professor of political and social science William Sumner (1840-1910) coined the term mores from the Latin word mos, which is generally translated as “customs.” He described mores as a type of folkway that a group of people accepted as the unquestioned way in which they should live. Because people do not question
For the first 50 years of her life, Elaine Morgan (née Floyd) did not seem like someone who would be mentioned in an anthropology class, but 30 years after that it would be a rare introductory class on human evolution where at least one student did not ask about her ideas. Born in 1920 in
One of the first investigators of the “blood relationship” of organisms was George Henry Falkiner Nuttall. Early in the 20th century, Nuttall sought to demonstrate that the degree of similarity between animals in their blood serum proteins reflected their evolutionary closeness. He produced an antiserum to serum of one animal and combined it with another
An important concept to apply in describing how journalists in different cultures and media systems understand their work and its social function is role perceptions. These can have a strong influence on journalists’ professional behavior and thus can explain differences between news cultures. The term “role” originates from theater, and sociology adopted the term to
In a social context, scholars conceptualize minority groups on the basis of social status. Whether from a domestic or an international perspective, minority status is not predicated on numerical representation within a culture; it has to do with social or cultural difference, based on language, religion, or other cultural practices. When language differences exist, the
US President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906 admonished writers who exposed the wrongdoings by business, industry, and government. Borrowing a phrase from John Bunyon’s Pilgrim’s Progress, he called them “muckrakers,” who only rake the muck of life and never see the stars. Irish dramatist George Bernard Shaw later put another spin on the term, making it
The term “new journalism” commonly refers to a style of literary reportage created in the 1960s by predominantly young American nonfiction writers such as Tom Wolfe, Norman Mailer, Gay Talese, Joan Didion, Hunter Thompson, George Plimpton, Truman Capote, and Michael Herr. Commentators have periodically declared other moments in the history of journalism as new. Most
News agencies are transnational media organizations that write and distribute stories and their components, such as images and interviews, to the news media. Audiences see their words and images upon almost every exposure to news, without usually knowing it. The original news agencies formed between 1835 and 1850 to fill the growing newspaper industry demand
“Ideology” has two related definitions: a set of shared ideas that order group life, and the ways that such a set of ideas reinforces existing power relations (Barnhurst 2005). Following the first definition, an occupational ideology refers to a system of beliefs characteristic of a particular group of workers, including but not limited to their
Myth is a concept used to explore the storytelling practices of journalists. From this perspective, myth is not a false belief or an untrue story, nor is it contrasted with reality. Myth is a story that a society produces by drawing on archetypal figures and forms to express prevailing beliefs, ideals, and values. Journalists appear
Sources are the individuals that reporters interview to obtain information. It is on this information that news stories are based. Because no standard definition exists for what constitutes a source, documents such as accident reports, corporate press releases, and even other news media reports sometimes serve as sources, providing information that becomes part of, or
News routines are repeated practices and forms that make it easier for journalists to accomplish tasks in an uncertain world while working within production constraints. The routines journalists employ serve functional ends for journalists, news organizations, and audiences. Routines also result in dysfunction. All work relies on routines, but tasks become more routine in organizations
A news story is the standard format that journalists employ for producing the texts they publish in the media. In contrast to feature narratives or subjective reviews and editorials, the news story aims to give a direct, succinct, and fact-based account, but instead the news story does political work and gives orientation in a complex
The Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) is the most widely used multiple-aptitude test battery in the United States. CAT-ASVAB, the computer-adapted version of the ASVAB, is administered to all applicants to the U.S. armed services. Over one-quarter of all high school students eventually take the paper-and-pencil ASVAB through participation in the ASVAB Career Exploration
The Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test (BMCT) measures aptitude to comprehend mechanical applications in realistic situations. The original form was published in 1940 by the Psychological Corporation and was developed to aid in training and employee selection as well as job performance predictions. Currently, Form S and Form T of the BMCT are available. These forms
The Butcher Treatment Planning Inventory (BTPI) is a behaviorally oriented, 210-item, true-or-false measure of factors relevant to psychological treatment planning. It is intended to be atheoretical, though it was informed by behavioral and cognitive-behavioral treatment orientations. It requires roughly a sixth-grade reading level and, under standard conditions, can be completed in 30 minutes. It can
The California Psychological Inventory (CPI) was first published in 1956. It has a historical relationship to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and shares many items with the older, well-known MMPI. The CPI has been studied extensively and has been widely used in both research and applied contexts. As a general-purpose personality assessment tool, it
The Campbell Interest and Skill Survey (CISS), developed by David P. Campbell, measures self-reported interests and skills. Used primarily in career exploration, it was designed for individuals who plan to pursue careers requiring a college education. It is helpful for adults considering career changes, trying to understand job dissatisfaction, or thinking about retirement. Written for
Samuel H. Osipow, with a colleague and several graduate students, developed the Career Decision Scale (CDS) at The Ohio State University (OSU) in the mid-1970s. First published by Marathon Press of Columbus, Ohio, the scale and its manual have been available from Psychological Assessment Resources of Odessa, Florida, since 1986. Although the instrument derives from
Interest inventories are commonly used to assist high school and college students with vocational choices. However, the results of such instruments offer little value if the individual lacks the requisite attitudes and competencies required to make sound vocational decisions. The Career Development Inventory (CDI), created by Albert Thompson, Richard Lindeman, Donald Super, Jean Pierre Jordaan
The Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) is a theory-based assessment and intervention resource intended to improve thinking in career problem solving and decision making. The CTI measures dysfunctional career thoughts that may inhibit the ability to effectively engage in the career decision-making process. The 48-item inventory is a self-administered and objectively scored measure that can be
An individual’s career development and success are influenced by the attributes that differentiate that person from other people. These individual differences include interests, values, traits, motives, and intelligence. Perhaps the most powerful and pervasive individual difference influencing career development is aptitude. A person’s aptitude can influence everything from career choice to entry into a specific
The General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) is a work-related multiple-ability assessment developed by the U.S. Employment Service (USES), a division of the Department of Labor. The following sections review the historical development of the GATB; the primary characteristics of the most recent measure, the Ability Profiler; and the current usage and availability of the Ability
Modal personality was the term used by anthropologist Cora DuBois in her 1944 monograph The Peoples of Alor: A Social-Psychological Study of an East Indian Island, based on research carried out in the Alor islands of Indonesia during the late 1930s. The Alor study focused on issues and methods involving both anthropology and psychology. It
Models are simplified representations of reality that help people to handle the largely undifferentiated mass of stimuli that impinges on their senses. Model, then, is a generic term for any systematic set of guesses or interpretations that people make about their surroundings. Some writers label these models as theories, hypotheses, theses, paradigms, propositions, or even
In 1936, Ralph von Koenigswald announced the discovery of a fossil cranium from a very young child outside the village of Perning, near the city of Surabaya, in East Java. Unlike most of the fossil hominids from Java, the cranium of Modjokerto reportedly was recovered in situ. Recent dating of the specimen, using the new
Since the beginning of excavation at this complex of mounds in 1921-1922, Mohenjo Daro became the most famous site of the “Indus” or “Indus Valley civilization,” although the slightly earlier work at Harappa provided archaeologists with a type-site and the historical-cultural designation “Harappan.” Even today, the terms Harappan and Harappan civilization are used as synonyms
Desmond Morris has been referred to as a Renaissance man. He is widely known in both scientific and artistic circles. He has been a prolific author of children’s and adult books, nonfiction and fiction. He has made films and hosted television programs on animal behavior and other zoological topics. He has also been a successful
Friedrich Max Muller was a prominent 19th-century scholar whose voluminous writings popularized the study of Indo-European languages, comparative linguistics, mythology, and Eastern religious thought. He was notable for his varied interests and broad comparative theories and was the author and/or editor of more than 100 books. Like other scholars of his day, including Edward B.
Culture cannot be defined simply by our ethnic background. It is also family, religion, profession, interests, gender, child-rearing practices, educational background, where we live, the food we eat, our individual uniqueness, sexual lifestyles, and more. Even though we are better understood by someone who considers our ethnic background, our own cultural definition is much broader
Monasticism, from the Greek root meaning “alone” (mono) and from the Latin monachus (monk), refers to an institutionalized religious form of life that is characterized by radical solitude and mortification. Although most often associated with great religious traditions of Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism, elements of monasticism are also evident in other traditions. The
Located in Northeast Asia between the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China, landlocked Mongolia covers an area of roughly 1.6 million square kilometers. Vast steppe regions, mountain areas, and desert areas dominate the country’s physical geography, and its continental climate yields long cold winters and brief summers. These basic ecological features have provided
On July 10, 1925, a high school biology teacher, John T. Scopes of Dayton, Tennessee, was charged in court with teaching evolution in violation of the Butler Act, a law recently passed by the Tennessee State Assembly that made it an offense to teach “any theory that denies the…Divine Creation of man.” The “Monkey Trial”
Gender and journalism became a popular area of study in the mid-1990s when gender in media studies gained recognition as a powerful variable defining feminine and masculine roles and behavior and structuring everyday life and work. Earlier feminist media studies had paid attention to women in journalism and their peculiar position in a male-dominated professional
Interpretive (or interpretative) journalism goes beyond the basic facts of an event or topic to provide context, analysis, and possible consequences. Interpretive journalists must have unusual familiarity with and understanding of a subject, and their work involves looking for patterns, motives, and influences that explain what they are reporting (Keller 1997). For 150 years, interpretive
Within journalism, the interview is traditionally known as a tool for gathering story material, but it is also a finished news product in its own right, a basic form journalists use to package news for public consumption. This mode of news presentation was marginal in the newspaper era, when verbatim interviews only occasionally appeared in
Investigative journalism is the product of independent work by reporters and editors, which reveals a public or social issue that would otherwise remain unknown. Reporters produce original investigations for newspapers, magazines, books, broadcast outlets, newsletters, and news websites. The process of investigation may take days, months, or years and include reviewing public documents, conducting multiple
Journalism education is instruction for work in the news departments of media organizations, both print and electronic. The instruction can take place before journalists enter the workforce, during early employment, and at later career stages. It can involve practical training in the skills of the journalist and broader education about the context of that work.
Several factors shape journalists’ everyday news decisions, their general concepts of what is newsworthy, and their understanding of quality, as well as long-term changes in reporting. One of the most important factors is the close interaction and frequent communication among journalists, or co-orientation. Co-orientation comprises several kinds of dynamic processes within journalism. In the era
The history of journalism, inclusively defined, encompasses the history of news and news media, including, among other things, the history of print, broadcast, and computer technology; of news work, news routines, and news workers; and of news organizations, including newspapers and other media outlets as well as wire services and feature syndicates. Defined more narrowly
Normative theories of journalism concern ideal functions of the press, what the press should do. These purposes are best understood in relation to larger claims about the good society. In principle, there are as many normative theories of journalism as there are political systems, from Marxism–Leninism to diverse conceptions of democracy. Nonacademics as well as
Credibility is a central professional value for journalists. For audiences, perceived credibility of the media affects choices of and responses to the news. Scholars and journalists disagree about what constitutes credibility, but agree that it relates primarily to the truthfulness and accuracy of the facts journalists report. Credible journalism is reliable and believable. However, scholars
Joining a professional journalist association usually requires gaining one’s main livelihood by working fulltime in the editorial department of a media organization. News gathering may involve documentation, detective work, outright research, or combining findings from existing databases. Other specialists such as photographers, technicians, designers, and the like are central to producing content but are not
Kuder Career Search (KCS) represents the third generation of interest inventories known as the Kuder Preference Records. First was the Kuder Preference Record—Vocational, which gave scores on 10 vocational interest scales. Next was the Occupational, which reported occupations that were similar to the inventory takers’ interests. The KCS consists of two kinds of scales. One
The Career Transitions Inventory (CTI) is a 40-item Likert format measure designed to assess an individual’s internal process variables that may serve as strengths or barriers when making a career transition. For purposes of this instrument, the term career transition was defined as a situation in which any of the following kinds of career changes
The Career Maturity Inventory (CMI) is a 50-item standardized measure designed to assess the process of how adolescents and adults approach career development tasks. John Crites developed this measure in the 1960s as the Vocational Development Inventory to assess the readiness attitudes of students in making appropriate vocational plans. It became the CMI in 1973
The Career Mastery Inventory (CMAS) evolved from the Career Adjustment and Development Inventory (CADI), a measure that was developed by John Crites as a means of assessing important facets related to career adjustment and development in early adulthood. Accordingly, six developmental tasks associated with the establishment stage of career development were identified. The establishment stage
Career indecision has been an important area of concern in vocational psychology for the last 50 years. An extensive body of research has examined the nature of career indecision, the factors (sometimes labeled barriers) that contribute to career indecision, the consequences of career indecision, and the effectiveness of interventions for career indecision. Most of this
The Career Beliefs Inventory (CBI) is a tool designed to help people identify career beliefs that may be preventing them from taking action to achieve their career goals. Many people hold beliefs that block their career progress. Maybe they believe that there is only one path to a successful career and that they have already
Career barriers have been hypothesized to affect the career development process by inhibiting career aspirations and restricting the range of perceived career opportunities. The Career Barriers Inventory (CBI) is a psychometrically sound, multidimensional, self-report instrument that was developed to assess for career-related barriers. The CBI assesses for a broad array of barriers that college students
The career concerns presented to counselors by adults vary widely. Some clients are making new career choices, others are coping with adjustment problems, and still others are planning retirement. To identify the career issues that most concern an individual, Donald Super, Albert Thompson, and Richard Lindeman constructed the Adult Career Concerns inventory (ACCI). The ACCI
Many psychologists use labels such as achievement test, aptitude test, and ability test imprecisely, and nonpsychologists use them as synonyms. This lack of precision is understandable because in actual practice, tests bearing these labels often appear to be quite similar and are used for similar purposes. This article explains the theoretical distinction among achievement, aptitude
For decades after its initial development in 1931, the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values (SOV) had a substantial impact on psychological practice and research. In terms of the metric of citation count, by 1970, the SOV was the third most popular nonprojective personality measure, after the Minnesota Mulitphasic Personality Instrument (MMPI) and the Edwards Personal Preference
The Mesolithic epoch, or the “middle stone age,” nowadays is interpreted as a Holocene stage of hunter-gatherer society development. Two opposing interpretations of historical status of the Mesolithic epoch have competed in archaeological science during the past century. Many researchers regard the Mesolithic as an important phase of human history and as a specific archaeological
Mesopotamia is the ancient land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It covers modern day Iraq and parts of Iran, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. Mesopotamian civilizations were the first in history to exist in well-populated and fixed settlements. As settlements became larger and more organized, they progressed politically and socially into city-states. They developed
Metallurgy deals with the study of metals and their ores as well as the processes for extracting, purifying, and alloying metals and production of metal objects. Humans have practiced the use of metals in various forms for nearly 9,000 years, beginning with copper during the eighth millennium BC. Cross-culturally, the processes involved with working metals
Mexico ranks among the world’s most important locations of anthropologists and anthropological research. It was a center of crop domestication and village settlement and one of the few sites of primary state formation. It witnessed a rich and varied history of complex societies, including writing, urbanization, and class hierarchies. Study of the Spanish conquest and
Miami (also called Maumee) is the name of an important Native American nation. Today, the Miami people live primarily in Ottawa County, Oklahoma, and in St. Joseph and Elkhart counties, Indiana. There are also Miami living in Peru, Wabash, Marion, Huntington, South Bend, Fort Wayne, and Indianapolis, Indiana. Tribal rolls in the Peru archives list
Middens are prehistoric rubbish or garbage heaps. The word midden in archaeology is a term that is truly a product of this discipline and is now part of its everyday vernacular. Middens are one of the most useful deposits for archaeologists because nearly everything a group of people use in their daily lives eventually will
Attendance at birth has been suggested to be essential in facilitating mother-child survival as the physiology of birth changed during human evolutionary history. Midwife, an Anglo-Saxon term meaning “with woman,” aptly describes the role that women have long assumed as birth attendants. The anthropology of midwifery is the study of nonphysician primary birth attendants within
Migrations are a constant in human history. Indeed, it is a mistake to treat residential stability as normal and thus not needing explanation while treating migration as abnormal, novel, and thus uniquely needing explanation. Unfortunately, this has not been the way in which the social sciences (including anthropology) have developed, and this entry focuses on
Sidney Wilfred Mintz is a major figure in anthropology’s synthesis of the study of local people and places with world history, and he has contributed significantly to the anthropology of food, work, the Caribbean, and the African American experience. He received his Ph.D. in anthropology from Columbia University in 1961. He spent most of his
The phrase missing link is a colloquial term describing a transitional form between taxa in an evolutionary scheme. Because the primary tenet of evolution is morphological change over time, there is necessarily going to be transitional forms between any two species sharing an ancestor-descendant relationship. Charles Darwin recognized this, and in fact the apparent lack
A blogger is a publisher of or contributor to a weblog. Weblogs are online publications that typically present contents in inverse chronological order, time-stamped, and with hyperlinks pointing at original sources online that bloggers refer to. Usually weblogs are conversational, so that readers’ comments appear along with the bloggers’ own postings. Bloggers emerged in large
Broadcast journalism extends news to radio and television. The first broadcast journalists came from other media including newspapers, news and photo magazines, theater newsreels, motion pictures, documentary films, and radio, and the mix of media influenced the development of broadcast journalism. For example, job titles came from newspapers (reporters and editors) and from motion pictures
Celebrity journalists are news workers who become prominent or famous in their own right and thus objects of media attention. Journalists are a means of chronicling fame and infamy, and stars and leaders depend on journalism to maintain a public profile. Under economic pressures, media industries have tended to associate public personalities with their chroniclers.
Citizen journalism refers to journalism produced not by professionals but by those outside mainstream media organizations. Citizen journalists typically have little or no training or professional qualifications, but write and report as citizens, members of communities, activists, and fans. They are amateur media producers. The two broad types of citizen journalism are political and cultural.
Mainly used to refer to news, cross-media production is the coordinated reporting of events in several media outlets (press, radio, television, Internet, mobile phones, and other mobile devices). The production can occur at a single integrated newsroom or involve collaboration among newsrooms from different media. The concept can also apply to other media products systematically
The concept of journalists accompanying troops into combat is not new, but the scale and manner of media operations on the battlefield transformed in the 2003 Iraq war. The change in terminology from “war correspondent” to “embedded journalist” gave rise to debates among media, military, and other commentators about the implications for the coverage of
Journalism ethics is a branch of applied philosophy of moral values and rules. Beginning with moral issues in medicine, the field expanded since the mid-twentieth century to include such professions as law, business, journalism, and engineering. Applied ethics has developed over the decades from merely describing actual moral behavior to establishing principles that guide decision-making.
Ethnic journalism is the practice of journalism by, for, and about ethnic groups. Because ethnicity is a historical and relational construction (Jackson & Garner 1998), the interplay of power and difference is central to the ways scholarly research defines ethnic media. Ethnic journalism relates to how difference is recreated and connected to the social, political
The “classic” foreign correspondent had become an identifiable occupation by the second half of the nineteenth century, supporting an increasing need of European and US newspapers to cover overseas military and civilian developments. Ever since, foreign correspondents have been considered an elite among news professionals. The numbers of “classic” foreign correspondents reached a peak worldwide
Sociologist Kurt Lewin first used the term gatekeeping to describe how food purchasing habits of a population affected social change. After noting that not everyone had the same impact on which foods a population ate, he used “gatekeeping” to refer to those who transport, buy, and prepare food items because they acted as gates, allowing
The National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) obtains, on an annual basis, information from tens of thousands of students at hundreds of colleges and universities nationwide. The NSSE survey, administered during the spring academic term to randomly selected first-year students and seniors, asks about their participation in programs and activities that institutions offer for learning
The My Vocational Situation scale (MVS) is a self-report screening tool developed for use with high school, college, and adult career counseling clients. The MVS was authored by John L. Holland, Denise Daiger, and Paul G. Power. After a 10-minute administration time, it provides information on clients’ vocational identity status, knowledge of career information, and applicable
The Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ) is a measure of work needs and work values. Work needs are a person’s requirements for satisfaction in work. Job satisfaction results when the conditions in work (work reinforcers) correspond to one’s work needs. The MIQ measures work needs by asking the person how important the following 20 work reinforcers are
The Employee Aptitude Survey (EAS), used for more than 50 years in selection and career counseling, was developed to yield “maximum validity per minute of testing time” (Ruch, Stang, McKillip, & Dye, 1994, p. 9). Derived from earlier ability tests, it consists of 10 short tests that may be given singly or in any combination.
The College Student Experiences Questionnaire (CSEQ) is a versatile tool that assesses the quality of effort college students expend in using resources and opportunities provided by an institution for their learning and development. Quality of effort is a key dimension for understanding student satisfaction and persistence and for understanding the effects of attending college. The
The career style interview (CSI) consists of six questions and is the primary means of assessment for those interested in applying the theory of career construction as developed by Mark L. Savickas. This theory helps individuals to find meaning in the nonlinear careers of today and is an expansion and clarification of Donald Super’s life-span
The Career Planning Survey is a paper-based career assessment system designed to help students in Grades 8 through 10 identify and explore personally relevant occupations and high school courses. The assessment elements consist of an interest inventory, an inventory of ability self-estimates, and two optional academic ability tests. In addition, students can complete checklists assessing
Dealing with career indecision has long been a focus of theory and research, and helping clients to overcome their difficulties in making decisions is among the core roles of career counseling. The Career Decision-Making Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ) is based on the taxonomy of career decision-making difficulties proposed by Gati, Krausz, and Osipow and was developed
The Career Decision Self-Efficacy Scale (CDSE) was developed by Karen Taylor and Nancy Betz in order to apply Albert Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy expectations to the domain of career decision making. Career decision self-efficacy was originally defined by Taylor and Betz as the individual’s belief that he or she can successfully complete tasks necessary in
The Strong Interest Inventory, published by CPP, Inc., and commonly referred to as the Strong, is one of the most widely used and scientifically grounded tools available for assessing people’s career and life interests. The Strong measures an individual’s work and personal interests and compares them to those of people employed in a wide range
The Mbuti Pygmies, referred to as BaMbuti or Bambuti, are an ancient group of hunters and gatherers living deep in the heart of Africa’s Ituri Forest in what is today the Congo. It is speculated that they might be the earliest inhabitants of Africa. Often referred to as the forest people, the Mbuti, whose height
Theodore Doney McCown, an American biological (physical) anthropologist, is best known for three major contributions he made to his science. First is his study of the Neanderthal skeletons from the Skhul and Tabun caves in Israel and the publication of his work in 1939 in collaboration with the British anatomist Sir Arthur Keith (1866-1955), The
Herbert Marshall McLuhan was born on July 21, 1911. The proud parents sent out announcements heralding the birth with the saying, “Unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given.” As a youngster, McLuhan was always quiet and retiring to the point of being antisocial. He had a great love of animals.
Margaret Mead, the most prominent and recognized anthropologist of the 20th century, had a profound influence on anthropology and feminism. She achieved celebrity status and became an American oracle. Mead was born into a Quaker family in Philadelphia on December 16, 1901, the daughter of Edward Sherwood Mead (a professor of economics at the University
Medical genetics is the study of the interrelationship between human biological variation, including both genetic and environmental sources, and the phenotypic outcomes of health and disease. The field has rapidly moved to the forefront of biomedical research. Its overall goal is the detection and treatment of pathological genetic variation. In the past, medical genetics focused
The term medicine man is derived from (a) the French Jesuit observance of certain individuals with healing roles among Canadian Indian groups (medicine) or (b) the Inuit angakoq or medicine person. The term is usually considered an anachronism in contemporary anthropological literature, with the Siberian Tungus word shaman preferred in most cases. However, among contemporary
In 1949, based on the large size of a single mandible, G. H. R. von Koenigswald named a new hominid genus Meganthropus. Today there is no agreement among the authorities concerning the taxonomic status of the mandibular specimens that have been assigned to the genus “Meganthropus.” Despite morphological differences related mostly to extreme size, most
A sociologist by training, Hugh (“Bud”) Mehan has made important contributions to the anthropology of schooling, particularly with regard to language use and the construction of students’ academic identities. He has published on topics as diverse as the scaling up of school reform, the pedagogical use of computers, and the discourse of the nuclear arms
Throughout antiquity, skin coloration has had a tremendous impact on humanity, causing various health effects along with discrimination and racism of ethnic groups. Melanin is a pigment that has been naturally selected to help humans adapt to different geographical regions and selective pressures. Variations in skin coloration, the amount of melanin in the skin, are
Memes are items that evolve in an evolutionary process covering the social and cultural domain only. They are sociocultural analogues to genes or viruses. The idea of a cultural item that evolves the same way as biological entities do goes back at least to Herbert Spencer. The notion that culture is passed on like a
In 1959, sociologist Erving Goffman published The presentation of self in everyday life. The heuristic value of the concepts he introduced in that volume have been wide-ranging, particularly in the field of communication with its focus on the ways that communication is used to establish and maintain relationships. Human desire for contact and companionship require
Sibling relationships can be important and influential throughout the lifespan. During childhood, siblings can influence both personality development and behavior. In adulthood, siblings can be an important source of friendship, support, and information. In old age, siblings are often an important source of both emotional and tangible support. Although much is known about the effects
Human survival is based on the ability to exchange resources, and as a result of evolution, the human brain has adapted so as to facilitate exchange (Cosmides & Tooby 2005). Communication is a tool by which individuals can negotiate an exchange as well as provide resources (Roloff 1981). Appropriately, communication scholars have used social exchange
How someone behaves verbally, physically, or through their presence in a social context influences the behavior of other people in that context. This is a logical and practical assumption about any form of shared human activity. The variety of ways that behavior takes shape and is repeated over time and situations is referred to as
Social support is a diverse, multidisciplinary area of study that addresses the question: why do people who are involved in relationships tend to be mentally and physically healthier than those who are not? One approach to answering this question focuses on what people say and do to help one another cope with stress (enacted support
Given that the experience of uncertainty, in some form, is a part of nearly every interaction, it should come as no surprise that new theoretical efforts to understand it are foundational to the study of interpersonal communication and continue unabated today. Uncertainty reduction theory (URT; Berger & Calabrese 1975) served as the field’s initial, and
Uncertainty reduction theory explains both how interpersonal communication is affected by a lack of knowledge and how people use communication to gather information. This theory was founded on the observation that initial interactions between strangers routinely involve an exchange of demographic and public information, and these interactions change in predictable ways as they progress (Berger
Verbal aggressiveness and argumentativeness are distinct but closely related concepts that apply to conflictual interpersonal interaction. Verbal aggressiveness is the inclination to attack the other person’s feelings or identity. Argumentativeness is the motivation to attack the other person’s position, arguments, or statements. Both are types of aggressive communication, which can be subdivided into two categories:
The term advocacy journalism describes the use of journalism techniques to promote a specific political or social cause. The term is potentially meaningful only in opposition to a category of journalism that does not engage in advocacy, so-called objective journalism . This distinction tends to be a focus of attention in the United States, especially
Alternative journalism is a fluid concept, often casually attributed to a wide array of media practices unified only by being different from the journalism in so-called mainstream media. Such a “definition” can encompass everything from local entertainment weeklies thick with advertising to the clandestine media of revolutionary movements. Recent scholarship has moved beyond this approach
Work-family conflict refers to a situation where the demands and responsibilities from work roles and family roles are mutually incompatible in some respect. In other words, participation in the work role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the family role, and participation in the family role is made more difficult by virtue
Although work-family research has typically focused on the difficulties of participating in both work and family roles (i.e., work-family conflict), there is a growing awareness that there are also beneficial effects of combining work and family roles. These beneficial effects have been referred to as work-family enrichment and may have positive implications for career development
Work/life litigation refers to legal action taken against employers for discriminating against a worker or workers due to their family responsibilities. Among the most common types of work/life litigation are cases charging employers with pregnancy discrimination, creating a hostile work environment, unequal pay, disparate treatment, disparate impact, violations of the Family and Medical Leave Act
Although the popular press has paid considerable attention to workaholism, very little research has been undertaken to further our understanding of it. It should come as no surprise, then, that opinions, observations, and conclusions about workaholism are both varied and conflicting. Some researchers, such as Marilyn Machlowitz, view workaholism positively from an organizational perspective, finding
The Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act (WARN) of 1992 was passed by the U.S. Congress in part to provide workers with an early warning of layoffs and plant closings so as to limit the amount of disruption in the workers’ lives as much as possible. Given that so many companies continue to reorganize and
The workforce research of the Hudson Institute has consistently emphasized the role of “shaping forces.” The research took its most influential form in the organization’s high-selling volumes Workforce 2000, published in 1987, and Workforce 2020, published in 1997. In the Hudson Institute’s treatment, their shaping forces determined the trends and challenges that would affect human
The Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory (CASI) is a 130-item, paper and pencil, self-report assessment by John L. Holland and Gary D. Gottfredson. The CASI is intended to give the employed or unemployed adult client and career counselor information regarding the client’s likelihood of job stability or change, potential career obstacles, or areas for further
The Jackson Vocational Interest Inventory (commonly known as the Jackson Vocational Interest Survey or JVIS) is a standardized, normed career interest test that was first published by Douglas Jackson in 1977 after 8 years of research on vocational roles and styles. With the use of factor analytic and related multivariate techniques, Jackson created a unique
The Values Scale (VS) is used to assess values in life roles, largely in relation to work. Items query both values desired in life roles and the place of work in value manifestation. The VS can be used in career counseling to identify areas of values conflict and deficits in career development and to connect
The Transition Behavior Scale, Second Edition (TBS-2) has as its intention the identification of behaviors that are thought to interfere with successful societal transition and employment from high school to adult life for special needs students. There are two versions of the TBS-2: a self-report instrument (to be completed by the student) and a school
Marmosets are the smallest platyrrhines or New World monkeys (NWMs). They are closely related to Goeldi’s monkeys, tamarins, and lion tamarins, which together form the subfamily Callithrichinae. Marmosets reside in tropical rain forests in the Amazonian regions of Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. They are a flamboyant group of monkeys, with many species boasting
The Marquesas, high-rise volcanic islands with jagged peaks and razor-edge ridges, are 740 miles northeast of Tahiti in French Polynesia. Experts believe that Marquesans may have come to their archipelago from Samoa more than 2,000 years ago. The islands lack coastal plains and coral reefs; the number of good anchorages is limited. Warring tribes lived
From the Latin marito, “to marry,” marriage is the social institution making the sexual union of two heterosexuals (and recently in some societies, also of two homosexuals) official, accompanied by an (often religious) ritual. It is one of the most important areas of study in social anthropology, since it is a social event as widely
Karl Heinrich Marx was born on May 5, 1818, in Trier, Germany, and he died on March 14, 1883, in London. Both of his parents were Jewish, but a year before Karl was born, his successful lawyer father had converted to Protestantism. His mother, born Henrietta Pressburg, took care of the household. From 1830 to
Marxism, both as a political ideology and as a social theory, ultimately derives nearly entirely from the Communist Manifesto, a pamphlet of roughly 12,000 words in the German language published in February 1848. This pamphlet allegedly was authored jointly by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It was prefaced by a short, untitled, and extremely misleading
A ceremonial mask is defined as a headdress or an object that covers the face for purposes of protection, ritual, entertainment, transformation, and disguise. Ceremonial masks have different characteristics and functions, depending on the culture that is associated with the particular mask. There are some areas in the world where masks are worn to communicate
Societies survive and successfully reproduce themselves only insofar as they meet the elementary material needs of a certain minimum of their members. This observation is the starting point for cultural materialism, a living theoretical tradition founded and defined by the American anthropologist Marvin Harris (1927-2001). Of cardinal importance, in Harris’s view, is the fact that
Matriarchy is a term we use with two main meanings: (1) domination by female members of society and (2) women-centeredness in society (such as in descent, place of residence, economy, politics, religion, family). Scholars who use the term in the second sense stress that the concept of matriarchy does not parallel the concept of patriarchy
The French-born sociologist and anthropologist Marcel Mauss is best known for his analysis of gift-giving societies and their relationship to more modern economic systems. Mauss is often described as the father of modern French anthropology. Although Mauss did not conduct fieldwork himself, his focus on ethnology was instrumental in influencing members of disciplines such as
Since ancient times, Mayan peoples have inhabited a region that included the easternmost states of Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala together with the western portions of El Salvador and Honduras. There are only a few parts of the world today where language and culture so closely coincide that a line drawn around the Maya-speaking peoples contains
When individuals engage in social interaction, regardless of the relationship they have with each other and the context within which it occurs, power and dominance are fundamental dimensions that both shape and are shaped by communication. Studies of how people think about and judge their social relationships have consistently demonstrated the importance of a dominance
Proxemics is the study of how humans perceive, structure, and use space as communication. Space helps people manage the dual needs for privacy and closeness in social and personal relationships. Early work on proxemics focused on classifying territory and conversational distance. Contemporary research has examined how proxemics is related to messages such as liking and
Social interaction is a complex, yet often subtle, process through which humans transmit information, pursue social goals, and initiate and sustain relationships. Even in the current digital age with its various forms of remote communication, face-to-face interaction is still critical for our social and emotional well-being. One way of characterizing the give-and-take between people in
Relational control is the most dynamic of the three dimensions of social relationships proposed by Millar and Rogers (1987) – the other two are trust and intimacy. Control represents the vertical “distance” between the persons in an ongoing interaction; it refers to the pattern of rights and obligations to define or direct and to defer
Relational dialectics is an interpretive theory of meaning-making in familial and non-kin relationships. Formally articulated in 1996 by Leslie Baxter and Barbara Montgomery, the theory is grounded in the philosophy of dialogism articulated by Russian language philosopher Mikhail Bakhtin. It relies primarily on qualitative methods with a goal of rendering a rich understanding of the
Relational maintenance refers to activities that occur in interpersonal relationships after the relationship is developed and before the relationship is terminated (Stafford 1994). Although the term implies a temporal stage of relationship life, communication scholars have more frequently focused on the processes that sustain a relationship. For example, Dindia & Canary (1993) identified four common
Schemas are defined as large-scale cognitive structures representing general knowledge, often also described as subjective theories, about some object or concept (Smith 1998). Their main functions include aiding in the interpretation of external stimuli, directing attention to specific types of external information, and guiding the retrieval and judgment of information from memory. That is, schemas
Approximately 50 percent of first-time marriages, and an even higher percentage of remarriages, end in separation or divorce. Because researchers and theorists are concerned with the prevalence of relational termination, they have devoted a great deal of effort to understanding the antecedents, processes, and consequences associated with divorce and the dissolution of romantic relationships. A
Relational uncertainty is the degree of confidence people have in their perceptions of involvement within interpersonal relationships. The construct has its roots in Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT; Berger & Calabrese 1975), which emphasized the relevance of uncertainty to interactions between strangers. As scholars began to examine URT in the domain of close relationships, they recognized
Knowledge structures are mental representations of regularities believed to exist in social situations and people’s dispositions and behaviors. Specifically, knowledge structures are generalized characterizations of some social entity or experience. Knowledge structures are also commonly referred to as schemas. Scripts, plans, prototypes, and memory organization packets (MOPS) are among the different types of knowledge structures
Turnover is the separation of a member from an organization. Turnover can be categorized as voluntary (e.g., an employee voluntarily quits working at Firm A to start a new job at Firm B) or involuntary (e.g., an employee is laid off, downsized, or fired). Though in both cases the organization has one less member, the
Underemployment is a multidimensional concept that refers to the underutilization of labor. The broadest conceptualization of underemployment refers to all dimensions of wasted ability of the eligible workforce. While this conceptualization would classify some of those not pursuing higher education as “underemployed” on the basis of wasted talents, most researchers adopt a narrower focus, taking
The “misery index” of an economy refers to the sum of the unemployment rate and inflation rate. The inflation rate might hit zero or turn negative, but the unemployment rate will always be positive. Regardless of how rich a country is and how well the economy is doing, there will always be people out of
A “traditional” expatriate is an executive or employee of a company who relocates—often with his or her family or significant other—to the country in which the expatriate assignment is located. In contrast, a virtual expatriate does not physically relocate to the host country. Instead, the virtual expatriate manages the responsibilities of the assignment through frequent
Vocational education in its broadest sense prepares individuals for their primary adult activity, usually paid employment. Preparation for entry into an established occupation such as the law, nursing, construction, or teaching usually presupposes a sustained engagement with it over a period of years. Vocational education will have, as one of its primary objectives, preparation for
Vocational psychology, a specialty within applied psychology, is the study of vocational behavior and its development across the life cycle. Emerging in the first decade of the twentieth century as America became heavily industrialized, vocational psychology originally concentrated on the fit between a worker’s abilities and interests and a job’s requirements and rewards. The outcome
Welfare clients are highly aware of the stigma attached to welfare reliance and express a strong commitment to self-sufficiency. Employers need a productive and reliable workforce, and many employers recognize that former welfare clients may help them meet this need. The transition of former welfare clients into the workforce is a critical issue that affects
Members of the business community often express concerns that the work ethic among employees has diminished. This perceived decline is often linked to lower levels of job performance and increases in turnover, absenteeism, and counterproductive behavior in the form of unauthorized breaks and theft on the job. Others, however, maintain that the work ethic is
In career development theory and counseling, vocational fitness is generally accepted to be the result of congruence between the characteristics of occupations and the individual differences among people. Abilities, skills, and interests were the individual differences traditionally thought to be most salient. Recently, a third set of personal variables has been entered into career theory:
There are two general perspectives on what work-family balance is, both of which are rooted in role theory. The traditional view comes from theory on interrole conflict and defines work-family balance as an absence of conflict between work and family roles. Role conflict occurs when the demands of the two roles are incompatible, such that
The words “magic” and “magical” are used in many different ways to refer to a huge variety of supernatural or wondrous phenomena, and even within anthropology there is inconsistency. So varied have been referents of the terms that some scholars have insisted that they have no cross-cultural validity and have urged that they not be
The pre-Columbian empire and state system of the Incas of South America created Machu Picchu during the mid-15th century as a royal Incan estate. Machu Picchu, a Quechua Indian term translated as “old or ancient” peak, is located just 50 miles northwest of Cuzco, Peru. It sits on the eastern side of an Andes mountain
Bronislaw Malinowski has been called the Joseph Conrad and Rider Haggard of anthropology, reflecting both his “romantic fascination with the culturally exotic” and a career that found him working from the South Seas to Mexico—to say nothing of the halls of the London School of Economics where he taught for more than 20 years. Considered
With his ideas influencing lawyers, historians, sociologists, and others, Sir Henry Sumner Maine’s writings on law have been extremely influential. Maine, a comparative jurist and historian, is noted for developing comparative studies of law and for focusing on law among indigenous populations. Maine’s notable achievements in the study of law include leading people to situate
At the end of each day, the world has more than 200,000 more mouths to feed than it had the day before; at the end of each week, it has 1.5 million more mouths to feed; and at the close of each year, it has an additional 75 million mouths to feed. In the world’s
Mana is the Polynesian and Melanesian concept of communicable supernatural power. This is a variant of a probably universal belief in a power that exists to varying degrees in things in nature. In most cultures, it is believed that the power is vital for the interactive participatory role of things in an interconnected cosmos, but
A mild fermented alcoholic beverage made from the starchy root of manioc, Manihot esculenta, is a domesticated woody perennial shrub. Consumed in generous quantities, particularly during feasts and rituals, it has been a significant item in the diet of native tropical South Americans since pre-Columbian times. Adults and children alike drink it. The beer is
Paul Thomas Mann was born on June 6, 1875, in Lübeck, Germany, and died August 12,1955, in Zurich, Switzerland. He wrote numerous novels, novellas, and essays and was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1929. Mann’s parents, Julia née da Silva Bruhns and Thomas Johann Heinrich Mann, belonged to the wealthy Lübeck bourgeoisie. Thomas
Maori tribes today commemorate in song and dance how their ancestors came to the North Island of New Zealand in seven canoes (waka). Believed to have arrived from the Society Islands in central Polynesia during the middle of the 14th century, they escaped warfare and excessive demands for tribute. The migrants assimilated indigenous inhabitants— hunters
The English philosopher and anthropologist, Robert Ranulph Marett was known for his philosophical analysis concerning the evolution of religious beliefs and rites. Born in Jersey, Channel Islands, Marett was a product of a traditional English educational system that stressed the basic classics common during the latter half of the 19th century. Marett pursued scholastic endeavors
Few topics interest lay people and scholars more than how men and women might differ from each other. Sex differences refer to behavioral variations between men and women based on biological differences; gender differences refer to behavioral variations between people due to cultural, sociological, and/or psychological differences. This article focuses on the manner in which
Numerous sources of perceived incompatibility can trigger interpersonal conflict. Sometimes one person’s goal clashes with another’s. Other times parties disagree about the means to achieve a common goal, or they mistakenly perceive incompatibility due to miscommunication or lack of communication. Conflicts often emerge when behavior violates expectations or runs contrary to social or relational rules.
Relationships are considered long-distance when opportunities for communication are restricted due to geographic constraints. Long-distance relationships (LDRs) are of interest given the implicit assumption in much interpersonal scholarship that relationships without frequent face-to-face contact are not as “close” as those with such contact (Stafford & Merolla 2007). LDRs exist in opposition to norms for shared
Marital communication refers to the communication and social interaction that transpire between spouses. However, the study of marital communication is often informed by and extended to a range of couples in a “marriage-like” setting such as cohabiting and same-sex couples. In most industrialized societies as many as 90 percent of the population marry, and in
Marital typologies are classifications of marriages based on systematic differences among them. An assumption underlying the study of marital typologies is that within any given sample of marriages, a few discrete, meaningful types can be discerned. Marriages are categorized into types in order to understand the communication that occurs between husbands and wives. Typologies of
Mediated social interaction refers to the interaction between two or more individuals, normally separated in time and/or space, enabled by various communication technologies. Mediated social interaction may take many different forms, depending on how many people are involved in message construction and reception (e.g., one-to-one vs one-tomany); whether participating individuals are required to be present
“Negotiation” is derived from a Latin term that means “to conduct business,” and a great deal of research is focused on economic transactions such as sales and collective bargaining. Over time, the use of negotiation has expanded to other contexts such as marriage and hostage negotiations (Rogan et al. 1997), and in addition to its
Online relationships may form using real-time chats or email from associations originating in listservs, chatrooms, interactive games, social networking sites, and many other social venues on the Internet. They may be limited to a single encounter or they may involve repeated interaction over time. They may be conducted exclusively online or involve additional media, including
Paralanguage refers to the nonverbal elements of speech – such as vocal pitch, intonation, and speaking tempo – that can be used to communicate attitudes, convey emotion, or modify meaning. In simple terms, paralanguage can be thought of as how something is said rather than what is said. The study of paralanguage is known as
Politeness theory is a sociolinguistic theory in the pragmatic tradition that was developed by Brown and Levinson, who extended Goffman’s dramaturgical approach. Using Durkheim’s work on social rituals, Goffman examined how people manage their public identities, which he labeled face. When in the presence of others, one’s face is always on display and others will
Stereotypes are beliefs about the characteristics of a group of people, which lead to expectations about what individual members of that group will be like and how they will behave. Stereotypes are usually formed on the basis of membership in visible social categories such as race, gender, age, and disability status. Although the content of
Organizational strategy refers to the overall positioning and competitive approach of an organization in the marketplace. Strategic management is the deliberate effort to align the organization’s long-term direction with organizational strategy. Good strategic management integrates organizational functions into a strategic plan so that all organizational units operate in a coordinated fashion in support of the
Stress is an experience that disrupts a person’s emotional and physical state, such as having too much work that causes someone to become overtired or getting into an argument with a coworker that results in anger. Life itself is inherently stressful, so it should be no surprise that stress is an integral part of the
Over four decades ago, Alvin Toffler predicted that our society would be affected by the Information Revolution due to technology provided by the computer. Clearly, this has occurred. We have moved from an agricultural society to a factory/assembly line/ manufacturing society, to an automated/knowledge-based society. There are few occupations that are untouched by technology. Whether
Telecommuting is a flexible work arrangement in which organizational employees work from an alternate location, usually the home. This variant of flexible work has been growing at a tremendous rate, which may be attributed to demands from employees, organizations, and society. First, employee demands for flexible work arrangements have arisen from substantial changes to the
The use of 360° feedback (also called multirater or multisource feedback, full-circle appraisal, and group performance review) became highly popular in the mid-1990s and is currently being used by organizations of all sizes. This type of feedback or appraisal is used to obtain performance information from sources “in a circle around” the individual being rated—thus
Rosabeth Moss Kanter’s 1977 book Men and Women of the Corporation contributed to filling the gap between broad sociological and individualistic psychological approaches to organizational theory and research by taking a social psychological look at interpersonal relations within work groups. Specifically, Kanter described the on-the-job experiences of “token” women working with a “dominant” group of
Toxic leadership exists in virtually every arena of social life. It takes a special toll, however, in the workplace, where workers frequently feel particularly constrained to acquiesce to employers and managers whom they perceive as controlling their professional and economic destinies. Toxic leaders in the workplace inflict serious and lasting harm on their employees, their
Training and development (T&D) activities identify and ensure, through planned learning programs, the development of key competencies that enable individuals to perform to the best of their ability, aptitude, and attitude on the job. The T&D functions have evolved to contend with and respond to social and economic events, as well as being highly influenced
Tuition reimbursement is a popular benefit in which employers pay all or part of an employee’s tuition for college courses or degree programs. Educational benefits taking the form of scholarships and grants are tax-exempt benefits under Section 117 of the Internal Revenue Code if the employee is a degree candidate and the course work is
Ralph Linton was an American cultural anthropologist known for his academic bravado and popular appeal, as well as for his long-lasting conceptual and theoretical contributions to anthropology and social science in general, whose main interest was the relationship between culture and personality. One of his more established concepts was acculturation, a phenomenon he witnessed throughout
Konrad Lorenz was a founder of ethology, the biological study of animal behavior. Ethologists study animals in natural and seminatural conditions rather than in the laboratory. They assume that natural selection is largely responsible for species-specific behavior and that the ecology to which the animals have adapted is essential for normal behavior. Lorenz won the
Llano culture refers to late Pleistocene North American people on the Llano Estacado, or Southern High Plains, who used distinctive stone projectile points, known as Clovis points, to hunt mammoths. Formal description of the Llano culture during the 1950s established it as the oldest known prehistoric archaeological culture in North America and reinforced the notion
Four genera of lorises have traditionally been identified: Perodicticus (potto) and Arctocebus (angwantibo) of sub-Saharan Africa, Loris (slender loris) of Sri Lanka (and possibly also India), and Nycticebus (slow loris) of southeastern mainland Asia as well as Borneo and Sumatra. Again traditionally, taxonomists have generally recognized only two species of Nycticebus (N. coucang and N.
Most of us, at one time in our lives, have probably wondered how we came about and what our ancestral background has been in terms of human evolution. It is an interesting inquiry and one that has received considerable attention by a number of prominent scholars. However, thanks to the efforts of C. Owen Lovejoy
Very little is known about the author Lucretius, whose full name was Titus Lucretius Carus. De Rerum Natura (DRN) [On the Nature of Things] likely was his only work. Later Christian authors, hostile to Lucretius’s views on religion and his statements about the death of the soul, invented some fantastic stories about him, according to
Lucy is among the most famous fossil skeletons believed to represent an early stage of hominid evolution following separation of the human lineage from its nearest living ape relative. At 3.2 million years, Lucy was the oldest and most complete hominid skeleton that clearly showed evidence of bipedal locomotion. The label “Lucy” provided a personal
Charles Lyell was born in Kinnordy, Forfarshire, Scotland, on November 14, 1797, the eldest of 10 children. His father guided his early studies of nature, but Lyell’s formal education was received at Exeter College of Oxford University. While there, Lyell was influenced by the works of William Buckland, a geologist and paleontologist. After graduating in
The Maasai live in rangelands in Kenya and Tanzania. Accurate census data are not available, but estimates of population numbers range between 500,000 and 1,000,000. The Maasai speak a Nilotic language, and their social system is structured by sections (which control areas of space), clans (which run across the whole land), and age-sets (bands of
The macaques are successful Old World monkeys (family Cercopithecidae) that are members of the genus Macaca, of which there are some 20 species. Macaques are the most wide-ranging primate species except for humans. One species, M. sylvanus or the Barbary macaque, is found in Morocco, Algeria, and Gibraltar. The other species are found from Afghanistan
Communicator style has been conceptualized by Robert Norton (1978, 99) “to mean the way one verbally and paraverbally interacts to signal how literal meaning should be taken, interpreted, filtered, or understood.” Norton was influenced by well over 2,000 years of scholarly writings concentrating upon speech, linguistic, and writing styles, by the soft magic skills of
Kinesics is the study of bodily movement, including gestures, posture, and movement of the head, arms, legs, or torso (Birdwhistell 1970). Some scholars also include facial expression and eye behavior as kinesic behavior. However, because these behaviors are discussed elsewhere on this website, this article focuses primarily on gestures and bodily movement. In their classic
A goal-oriented perspective on communication entails the assumption that social interaction is an instrument for achieving objectives. Communication is the means by which something gets done. Goals have several features. They vary in their level of abstraction. For example, a person who is seen typing at a computer may be writing a research paper, attempting
Imagined interactions are a type of social cognition and mental imagery, theoretically grounded in symbolic interactionism, in which individuals imagine conversations with significant others for a variety of purposes (Honeycutt 2003). The imagined interaction construct has provided a beneficial mechanism for studying intrapersonal and interpersonal communication . Imagined interactions are a type of daydreaming that
As a fundamental interpersonal process, impression management is an important concept in any communication context. Impression management refers to the process of editing, packaging, and communicating information to control one’s own images as perceived by other people. Studies have shown that people use impression management to influence others, and that it eventually affects the overall
People often try to get others to like them when initiating and intensifying romances, friendships, and even brief encounters. When they do this they are engaging in affinity seeking. For decades, scholars interested in relationships focused primarily on static variables associated with liking. For instance, research has long demonstrated that people who share similar attitudes
When people first meet, interaction is likely to be guided by issues associated with uncertainty and self-presentation. Both mutual uncertainty reduction and effective presentational management are seen to be necessary but not sufficient conditions for relational growth. Significantly, these goals may become mutually exclusive when, for example, social actors seek to hide negative or intimate
In interpersonal encounters, people are usually responsive and adaptive to others. Their gestures, voices, and words take on the quality of a dance as they mesh with one another to create a coordinated interaction. Interaction adaptation theory (IAT; Burgoon et al. 1995b) predicts and explains how, when, and why people adapt to another’s verbal and
Philosophical, empirical, and popular inquiries into what causes people to be attracted to one another are as old as humanity. As early as the fourth century bc Aristotle examined the forces of interpersonal attraction. Research on interpersonal attraction surged in the 1960s with two seminal publications (Berscheid & Walster 1969; Byrne 1971). Interpersonal attraction was
Every act and artifact of communication is open to evaluations of its quality, i.e., how well it was accomplished. Because such evaluations involve individual and social judgments of communicative performance, especially in interpersonal contexts, and because virtually all relevant achievements of interpersonal communication depend on performance and subsequent evaluations, a theory of interpersonal communication competence
One of the primary aims of self-leadership is to achieve higher performance and effectiveness through behavioral and cognitive strategies that individuals use to influence themselves. It is a comprehensive view of self-influence that considers behavior to be a result of factors both internal and external to the individual. Considered to be an advanced form of
Self-monitoring refers to the extent to which one attends to social cues and attempts to adapt behavior to control the image one presents to others. First introduced by Mark Snyder in 1974, this construct identifies individual differences in how people react to their social environments. Snyder believed that people differ in the extent to which
Discrimination refers to a person’s behavior toward another based on the other’s social characteristics, such as age, sex, ethnicity, or national origin. Thus, sex discrimination is differential treatment of women and men. Inappropriate discrimination (for example, excluding workers from certain jobs or offering them lower wages based on their sex) is a topic of importance
Sexual harassment is behavior of a sexual nature that harms those exposed to it. The behavior may be intentional or unintentional, aimed at an individual or group, initiated by an individual or group, initiated by employees or outside parties such as customers, initiated by men or women, and targeted at men or women. Many countries
Although gay men and lesbians constitute between 4 percent and 17 percent of the workforce, a larger proportion than many other minority groups, they remain an understudied population that is often “invisible” in the careers literature. It is important to understand the unique challenges faced by lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals in the workplace and
By the mid-1990s, 1 of every 4 families in the United States with children under 18 was a single-parent family, up from 1 of 10 in 1970. Oddly enough, no plausible explanation for this increase has been found, either within distinct subgroups or in an overall sense. The career development of single parents cannot be
An inclusive understanding of the concept views social capital as the potential resources derived from an individual’s social relationships as well as valued resources available from the organization of that social network of relationships. Individuals or groups exchange social capital to gain access to needed resources from others in the social system or to enhance
People work at an incredibly wide number of jobs. A major question is How can we explain how people find their way into working at one occupation rather than another? The social learning theory of career development (SLTCD) is one of a number of theories that help explain how individuals make occupational choices. The SLTCD
Socioeconomic status (SES) is the relative position of a family or individual along a hierarchical social structure, based on access to, or control over, wealth, prestige, and power. It is used to measure social class and social status. It is usually operationalized as a composite measure of income, level of education, and occupational prestige. Although
Although the desire to experience and express spirituality in one’s work appears to be on the increase, there are two difficulties encountered as soon as one tries to discuss spirituality. The first is the fear that spirituality is inextricably linked to organized religions so that a particular religious focus will try to be imposed. The
Theorists who have written about the human life cycle include Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, Erik Erickson, and Daniel Levinson. They usually describe universal stages that people pass through during their lives and present the life cycle as one where people progress toward certain goals. Some theories, such as Freud’s, were based mainly on
Willard Frank Libby was an American chemist whose technique of carbon-14 (or radiocarbon) dating provided an extremely valuable tool for archaeologists, anthropologists, and earth scientists. For this development, he was honored with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1960. Libby was born in Grand Valley, Colorado, on December 17, 1908, to Ora Edward Libby and
The concept of life belongs to the basic cognitive endowment of every human. This deep anchoring makes it difficult to define life. Everyone has an intuitive understanding of how a living object should look and how it should behave, but for scientific purposes it is necessary to make this implicit and vague knowledge explicit and
One of the questions that has troubled humankind ever since it began to think about its position in the universe concerns its own origin and the origin of life in general. There are two basic alternatives for answering this question. Either we believe that life has a supernatural origin (such as being created by a
Segmentary lineage systems are a form of decentralized and egalitarian social organization consisting of nested groups vested with the responsibility for security, defense, and welfare. Lineage systems are characterized by groups defined by descent from a common ancestor. Small groups trace their descent to close ancestors, whereas large groups (encompassing many small groups) trace their
One of the most important tasks of historical or comparative linguistics is to try to establish a relationship between or among two or more contemporary languages based on a supposed common ancestry. The tool most often used to do this is linguistic reconstruction. In 1786, Sir William Jones, a British judge and swashbuckling scholar who
Historical linguistics is a subfield of linguistics that studies language in its historical aspects. It investigates a language or languages at various points in time. The term “diachronic linguistics” is often used in place of historical linguistics and sets it apart from “synchronic linguistics,” which studies language at a single point in time. The investigation
Transformation grammar is a way of viewing syntax first proposed in 1957 by Noam Chomsky, the most influential linguist of the 20th century. It is hard to overestimate the impact this new theory had on all of the social sciences; within a few years, it had replaced the prevailing paradigm of structuralism in linguistics and
Descriptive linguistics is a subfield of linguistics that studies and describes language in structural terms. In its investigation of linguistic structure, descriptive linguistics emphasizes the primacy of speech, the adoption of a synchronic approach, and the description of language and dialect systems as they are found to be spoken. Descriptive Linguistics as a Scientific Pursuit
Carolus Linnaeus, the originator of the system of classification of animals and plants that we still use today, was eventually ennobled in 1757 as Carl von Linné. He was born in southern Sweden during the first decade of the 18th century, a time when knowledge of exotic faunas and floras was beginning to seep into
A communication rule is a description of a communicative regularity relevant to social interaction. The communicative regularities contained within rules are normative, in the sense that they are what is expected to occur by participants in social engagements and their absence usually results in social disapproval or sanction on the part of those participants toward
Friendship refers to a broad category of interpersonal relationships communicatively accomplished with peers and characterized by voluntary, reciprocated, nonromantic affection and good will. These relationships range in depth and duration from superficial, transitory bonds developed from situational associations, such as residential, educational, or workplace proximity, to profoundly dedicated lifelong attachments spanning time and distance. Nature
When people use cues other than words to communicate, they often think first of facial expressions. Facial expressions involve movements of the face that change dynamically in the course of an interaction. People also use more static facial features (e.g., eye color, shape of nose) as part of the communication process. Both facial expressions and
People use their eyes during social interaction in three primary ways: looking in the direction of the other person’s face, often referred to as gaze; looking away from their partner’s face or gaze aversion; and mutual gaze, in which both interactants look in the direction of the other’s face and eye area at the same
Every face-to-face interaction occurs in a specific location. Although it is typically assumed that the course of particular interactions is a product of the individuals involved and their relationships to one another, the surrounding environment has important effects at both the macroand micro-levels. Where people live has an important effect on social behavior. For example
Disclosure, as a type of interpersonal communication, means revealing private information that individuals believe they own and have a right to control. Disclosure builds romantic and friendship relationships, although there is a possibility of disclosing too much information, or telling information when a relational partner is not ready to hear the disclosure, thus hampering relational
Deceit is part and parcel of daily life. It not only frequents news headlines in conjunction with political chicanery, corporate scandals, campus cheating, telemarketing scams, identity theft, online predators, and terrorist plots but also permeates the fabric of everyday conversation. People who complete diaries of their communication report 20 to 33 percent of their interactions
The “truth-bias,” the expectation that, normally, one tells the truth, is proposed to be the cornerstone of humanity (Bok 1978). Yet, it is the skill of displacement – speaking of things which are not present – and thus also the ability to deceive that is the basis of human language (Aitchison 1996). A society of
Much research attention has been devoted to identifying the factors that affect people’s ability to detect others’ deceptive acts. Communication researchers typically have focused on the accuracy of judgments based on the verbal and nonverbal behaviors of a message source, unaided by technological devices or extra-interaction information. In general, results show that people are not
Dating relationships have no uniform defining characteristics. They have romantic or sexual overtones, occur between two people who are not married to each other or to anyone else, typically do not share a residence, have not formally acknowledged plans to marry, and may or may not expect continued involvement. These relationships vary in expectations for
Retraining has taken on increased significance over the past two decades as globalization and economic restructuring in many Western, industrialized nations has resulted in widespread worker displacement. Traditional industries, such as farming, manufacturing, and natural resource extraction, have been particularly affected. Changing consumer demands for individualized rather than mass-produced products has contributed to the changing
Reverse discrimination claims often arise out of an employer’s attempt to honor either affirmative action programs or diversity initiatives focusing on attracting more women and minorities in the workplace. Lawsuits alleging reverse race discrimination generally fall under the rubric of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended, or the Fourteenth Amendment
Scholars as well as business practitioners have long recognized the importance of mentoring for organizations and the people in them. In recent years, an innovative type of mentoring has extended the traditional mentoring model by turning roles upside down with reverse mentoring relationships. Traditional mentoring relationships have been defined as those in which a more
There are two primary views of role models. One, the traditional view, depicts role models as persons critical to an individual’s career development process. They often occupy socially important roles, such as leaders, managers, teachers, and coaches. They offer individuals a way to refine their developing identity by providing an image of someone they would
Sabbaticals, which were first introduced at Harvard in 1880, have become a form of paid leave offered to faculty by nearly all United States universities, more than 80 percent of four-year colleges, and 60 percent of two-year colleges. Sabbaticals, derived from the Hebrew Shenath shabbathon, or year of rest, commonly are defined as paid leaves
As the concept of lifelong learning is embraced by more and more people, school-to-work transitions (STW transitions) are now likely to occur many times over the course of an individual’s lifetime. The school-to-work transition discussed here, however, will focus on only one of these transitions, the non-college-bound student’s entry into full-time employment after high school.
Awareness is a central concept in career development. It has been defined as a relatively complete and accurate perception of individuals’ own qualities and the characteristics of their environment. The two types of awareness identified in the literature are self-awareness and environment awareness. Self-awareness refers to the realistic and accurate perception of one’s interests, values
Throughout the history of career development, ideas about the self-concept have played a critical role in theory development, research, and counseling practice. Scholars in career development and humanistic psychology have developed perhaps the most commonly used definition of self-concept. In short, the self-concept is thought to refer to conceptions of oneself—in other words, the “I”
The concept of self-efficacy, as originated by Albert Bandura of Stanford University, has become one of the major variables used in understanding and facilitating individual career development and is also becoming important in the study of organizational and team effectiveness. As originally proposed, self-efficacy expectations refer to a person’s beliefs concerning his or her ability
Self-esteem is of central importance to the psychological health and well-being of individuals in Western cultures. This importance is well documented, as self-esteem has been implicated in a vast array of phenomena, including depression and suicidal ideation, loneliness and peer rejection, academic achievement, and life satisfaction. When scholars and laypeople use the term self-esteem, they
Law and society designates a three-way concern with the nature of law, society, and the relation between them. Two main approaches have been important: one ultimately rooted in the law and legal theory of the Roman Republic and the other ultimately rooted in the law and legal theory of the Roman Empire. This entry describes
Meave Leakey seems to have the philosophy that if we can understand our past, we should be in a better position to understand our future. Such a view might not be the only reason for looking backward for what we can find out about ourselves today, but most would agree that it is a good
The paleontologist Richard Leakey was born and raised in Kenya, son of the famous paleontologist team, Louis and Mary Leakey. Influenced by his dynamic parents, the value of a traditional English education waned in the face of both adventures of new hominid discoveries and the diversity of life found in the African environment. After successful
Legends are stories believed by the narrator to be true. Most stories, therefore, are based on actual experience or observations that have been cast into narrative form in accord with traditional models and established points of view. Legends need no datelines or the names of persons or places to authenticate them. They are over as
Extant lemurs inhabit the island of Madagascar along with other prosimians, the indriids and the aye-aye. Among the former are the “mouse” lemurs (cheirogaleids); the “sportive”lemurs (genus Lepilemur); the “gentle,” “wooly,” and “bamboo” lemurs (genus Hapalemur); varecias (genus Varecia); the ring-tailed lemur (genus Lemur); and various other lemurs such as black, brown, collared, macaco, and
Born in 1870, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, who later changed his name to Vladimir Lenin, was the son of a civil service official in the Russian government. Lenin became interested in socialism and revolution when his brother Aleksander was executed in 1887 for being part of a group that attempted to execute Alexander III. Shortly thereafter
Leonardo da Vinci represented the transitional stage between the early period of the Renaissance, with its humanist links to Classical antiquity, and the later Renaissance, with its scientific and technological achievements that foreshadowed the modern Western world. In fact, he was one of the dominant artistic figures of this age. During his later years, da
The Levalloisian tradition is a Lower and Middle Paleolithic method of stone tool production whereby stone flakes are removed from a carefully prepared stone core in such a way as to predict the size and shape of the flakes removed and to maximize the number of flakes produced per core. The evolution of the Levalloisian
Emmanuel Levinas was a major figure in postwar French philosophy, although he was born in Lithuania. Significantly, he was Jewish in origin; this was always important in his philosophy, which sometimes referred to his Jewish (although he seems to have been agnostic about the existence of God) and Zionist convictions. He studied with Martin Heidegger
The anthropologist, philosopher, and sociologist Lucien Lévy-Bruhl is known for his controversial understanding of the minds of indigenous people. His highly influential writings led to a new method of analyzing illogical thought patterns as well as new ideas regarding primitive religion and mythology. Lévy-Bruhl’s early work focused on French, German, Jacobean, and Comtean philosophy, whereas
The New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) is the result of a political proposal concerning media and communication issues emerging from international debates in the late 1970s. The term originated in discussions within the NonAligned Movement (NAM), following the proposal for a “new international economic order,” and became the expression of the aspirations of
TeleSur was a television initiative launched in July 2005 and spearheaded by the government of Venezuela, in cooperation with three other Latin American states – Argentina, Cuba, and Uruguay. The channel was presented by its promoters as “the new television of the south,” with a geopolitical emphasis on the global south reflected in the way
Time Warner is the world’s leading multimedia conglomerate, with operations in filmed entertainment, broadcast and cable television, Internet services and print media. The company generated more than $43 billion in revenues in 2005. Time Warner was built through a series of mergers over more than 80 years. Time, Inc. began in 1922 as a publishing
The term “tourism industry” covers a wide range of services, activities, and commodities, bound together in a complex network of relationships that involves the temporary migration of people for leisure purposes. There has always been an element of the global within tourism. Since the first worldwide figures were gathered in the early 1950s, tourism has
UNESCO – the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization – is a specialized UN agency, founded in 1945, and composed of 192 member states. Its headquarters are in Paris, where member states maintain delegations headed by a person with diplomatic status, typically with the rank of ambassador. UNESCO also has more than 50 field
Established in 1931, Vatican Radio (VR) is one of the world’s oldest international broadcasting services. Its birth can be traced back to the Lateran Treaty, signed in 1929 by Benito Mussolini and the secretary of the Vatican State, Cardinal Gasparri. Aimed at resolving 59 years of tense relationships between the kingdom of Italy and the
Voice of America (VOA) is a multilingual international broadcasting service funded by the US government, which, since its creation in 1942, has played an important role in projecting American news, culture, and policy to the world. The US government was slow to begin international broadcasting. While Soviet Russia had been transmitting to the world since
War propaganda fuses international and domestic processes in communicating one or more nations as the “Other,” as worthy en masse of death and mutilation. During the twentieth century, as examples from Britain, Germany, and the US indicate, domestic as well as international media propaganda became essential for planning and engaging effectively in combat against other
Comforting communication encompasses the verbal and nonverbal messages that people use when trying to reduce others’ emotional anguish. Thus, comforting represents a strategic communication activity that has the primary goal of alleviating another’s emotional distress; it may also aim to enhance the other’s self-esteem, facilitate the other’s coping, and assist the other’s problem-solving in a
Communication apprehension refers to one’s anxious feelings about communication. McCroskey defines communication apprehension as “an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with another person or persons” (1977, 78). Communication apprehension has been one of the most studied individual differences in the field of interpersonal communication, under a variety of
The term quality of work life (QWL) refers to the degree of satisfaction and contentedness an employee experiences with respect to his or her job and the overall work situation. QWL has been linked with a number of positive outcomes both for individual workers and for employing organizations. QWL programs sprang from the humanistic theories
Forty years have passed since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 made it illegal to engage in racial employment discrimination in the United States. Many scholars agree that this enactment has played a significant role in reducing this type of discrimination. Indeed, all accounts seem to suggest that blatant or outright prejudice is seen infrequently
The primary method in realistic recruitment is the realistic job preview (RJP). The RJP is the presentation of realistic—often quite negative—information about an organization to a job candidate. It is given to job candidates during the selection process to help them make an informed job choice, should a job offer be made. A second realistic
Recruitment is typically defined as activities engaged in by an organization with the purpose of attracting potential employees. Internal recruitment refers to the processes used to attract current employees to apply for job openings in the firm. External recruitment refers to the processes involved in attracting individuals who are not currently employed by the firm
Redeployment is a strategic course of action taken by an organization to redirect or reallocate its current human resources: its employees. Continued utilization of effective human capital is primary to the life of an organization. Redeployment, which comes as a result of business circumstance or necessity, can be viewed as an intended transitional process. While
Although much more is written about effective resumes and interviewing, written or oral statements about an individual’s suitability for a position, commonly referred to as references, should not be underestimated as tools in the job search process. In fact, references may well tip the scale in favor of an applicant in a job interview or
Reinforcement theory is the basis for the prediction and control of human behavior through the use of contingent rewards that strengthens the behavior and increases its subsequent frequency. Reinforcement theory explains learning through the linkages or connections that are made between behavior and environmental contingencies. It emphasizes the importance of observable, measurable behavior. Environmental contingencies
Religious Discrimination Religious discrimination and diversity are realities of the modern workplace. In a recent survey of people in the United States, over 90 percent professed a religion, representing more than 1,500 religious denominations. Indeed, during the past decennia, the religious makeup of the workforce in Western countries has changed considerably due to increasing globalization
Every job search is inherently discouraging. Whether someone has 2 years of work experience or 20, the search for a job will run into disappointments, primarily because of the intense competition in the job market. There simply are more qualified applicants for every job that is advertised, resulting in discouragement when it minimizes the chance
Broadly conceptualized, retirement is the departure from a job or a career path, usually occurring sometime after the age of 50, where the individual retiree displays a limited or nonexistent psychological attachment to work after the departure. Retirees are normally differentiated from non-retirees based on several criteria, including tending to spend less time working for
Attempts by linguists and anthropologists to understand humankind have always focused on two areas: culture and society and language and communication. It is somewhat unnatural, however, to separate the study of language from the study of culture, as doing so can limit attempts to characterize the development of peoples and how they create communities and
Many disciplines in the social sciences and humanities systematically study language, each having its own theoretical foundations, goals, and research traditions. The resulting landscape is a maze of paths that start and then split off either to reemerge as hybrids combined with other specialties or to reach a dead end. For instance, psychology and anthropology
Lazaret Cave (Grotte du Lazaret) is a pre-Neandertal cave occupation site located on the French Mediterranean coast in Nice (Alpes-Maritimes) on the western slope of Mount Boron. This karstic cave is extremely large, measuring 40 meters long by 15 meters wide with a ceiling 15 meters high. Excavations conducted by François Octobon and Henry de
Work in animal behavior, and in particular cognitive ethology, has shown that most of the differences in kind once thought to distinguish humans from other animals are actually differences in degree. The one behavior where a huge gap still seems to exist is language. Language is best defined as a communication system that employs arbitrary
To classify the languages of the world, it is of foremost importance to first decide what constitutes a “language.” Most classification schemata involve spoken languages—alive, endangered, and extinct. The estimated number of spoken languages varies from 3,000 to 10,000, and there are languages spoken by a few societies that are still unidentified. There are some
Language represents a fundamental character of modern humans, Homo sapiens. All animals engage in some form of communication. For example, single-cell organisms may relate to individuals around them via chemicals, whereas birds prefer more vocal communication. Researchers who study communication in nonhuman animals, such as Sue Savage-Rumbaugh (in bonobos) and Irene Pepperberg (in parrots), may
Language types and language typology refer to characterizing languages of the world by similarities and differences in their structural forms and in their functional uses. They also refer to characterizing them according to language families where there is evidence that the languages have common structural relationships that are consistent with some “parent” language (i.e., genetic
The Lapps, or Sämi as they prefer to be called, reside in a vast area of land that is nearly 400,000 square kilometers and crosses the boundaries of four countries: Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Russia. They are the oldest known inhabitants of Finland. The Sämi are in the minority in each of these countries and
On September 12,1940, in an oak forest just outside the small town of Montignac in southwestern France, four schoolboys crawled into a hole in the ground that had been exposed by the roots of a falling tree. Once inside, they crawled several dozen yards along a dark passage before finding themselves in a cavity across
Law and anthropology (or legal anthropology) examines the relationship among society, culture, and law in societies at various levels of political, economic, and social complexity. Legal anthropology is a sub-field of the discipline of anthropology; however, its subject matter is also a focus of interdisciplinary analysis in fields such as criminal justice, law, philosophy, and