Cable News Network (CNN) has become an icon of the globalized news world. CNN’s rise as one of the most prominent global news organizations is based on a successful strategic integration of three key spheres of journalism: (1) an innovative approach to internationalization; (2) the invention of unique presentation styles, such as “breaking news”; and
Sony is a leading global producer of consumer electronic equipment. Principal products include, among many others, home and portable audio, video cameras, digital cameras, Aiwa products, and home and portable gaming systems. Sony also is a producer of media content including recorded music, motion pictures, television programs and video games. The company also has a
Transnational social movements engage in communication processes as well as the creation of media products in their strategic work toward social change. Media attention to these efforts as well becomes part of the ongoing struggle to promote social justice, political opportunities, and economic equality. The bridging of social movement interests across national boundaries signals the
Since the end of the Cold War’s bipolar confrontation in 1991, the security arena has significantly changed from a once well-bounded field, consisting of hierarchically organized state bureaucracies, to a rhizomatic, growing assemblage that merges various kinds of public and private security agencies and activities and is driven by the desire to bring systems together
The possibility of communicating over thousands of miles using a transmitter in space was proposed by Arthur C. Clarke in a 1945 article in Wireless World, in which he described a system of “extraterrestrial relays” or repeaters in space. Clarke calculated that an object put into orbit 22,300 miles (36,000 km) above the earth would
Samsung Corporation of South Korea has emerged as a new global economic player, currently employing over 66,000 people in some 50 countries worldwide. In 2007 Samsung Electronics, the fastest growing subsidiary of the Samsung Group, had 25 production bases worldwide and 59 branches in 46 countries, in North and South America, Europe, the Middle East
Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty were among the half dozen major broadcast information sources for the Soviet bloc from soon after World War II until the final collapse of the Soviet system in 1991. The two shortwave stations were covertly founded in 1950 (Radio Free Europe) and 1953 (Radio Liberation from Bolshevism, its initial
Radio France Internationale began in 1929 with the creation of the French national office of radio broadcasting. Two years later, in 1931, Radio France began broadcasting to French colonies in 20 languages under the name Poste Colonial. Its target audience was French expatriate colonizers and a few natives, termed évolués, who had been trained to
After World War II, a spurt in the growth of multinational companies and worldwide trade led to the concomitant growth of global advertising and marketing agencies and networks around the world. Such growth was the inevitable outcome of the need to coordinate the advertising and marketing of goods and services in the various markets that
News Corporation (or “News Corp”) is an international media company with annual revenues of more than $28 billion, making it the third largest entertainment and media conglomerate behind Time Warner Inc. and Disney (Hoover’s Company Records 2007). The company produces and distributes filmed entertainment for the theatrical and television markets as well as being a
In common usage, to orient oneself is to locate oneself in respect to points of reference. In an organizational setting, orientation is the process of assisting individuals in locating themselves with respect to the organization’s culture, values, vision, mission, goals, structure, and procedures. While typical notions of orientation begin with the new member’s entrance into
Outplacement refers to company-supported initiatives that help terminated employees cope with their termination and find reemployment. These initiatives are often conducted by outplacement firms hired by organizations undergoing downsizings or staff reductions, although some companies provide outplacement assistance internally. Outplacement has become a common business practice, with millions of employees receiving outplacement over the last
Pay compression is present when individuals with more years of experience receive pay rates nearly equal to (compression) or less than (inversion) individuals with fewer years of experience. Pay compression most commonly occurs when demands from the external labor market push the starting salaries of organizational newcomers to pay levels that are similar to those
The purposes of a performance appraisal fall within two broad categories, namely administrative and developmental. The former provides a basis for decisions regarding promoting, demoting, transferring, compensating, laying off, or terminating an employee. Because most Western countries have laws that affect these decisions, organizational decision makers must take these into account when making an administrative
Personnel selection is the systematic process of making decisions about which individuals to employ to fill open positions within an organization. The main goal of selection is to identify and employ those individuals who have the necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to successfully complete the work of the organization. The volume and quality of
Positive organizational scholarship (POS) focuses on the generative (that is, life-building, capability-enhancing, capacity-creating) dynamics in organizations that contribute to human strengths and virtues, resilience and healing, vitality and thriving, and the cultivation of extraordinary states in individuals, groups, and organizations. POS is premised on the belief that enabling human excellence in organizations unlocks latent potential
Researchers from a variety of disciplines within psychology have come to the conclusion that people care a great deal about fairness. One stream of this research, organizational justice, focuses on issues of justice in the workplace. Whereas most justice researchers agree that organizational justice is a multidimensional construct, this entry focuses on one particularly important
The protean career is a name given to describe a career that is driven by the individual and not by the organization. The concept of the protean career dates to 1976, when in the book Careers in Organizations, Douglas T. Hall noted an emerging type of career form that was less dependent upon the organization
The term psychological contract has been around since the 1960s and was first used to capture the relationship between a work group of employees and a plant foreperson in terms of what the two parties exchanged in their relationship (acceptable wages and job security in return for higher productivity and lower grievances). This initial definition
The Pygmalion effect is a special case of self-fulfilling prophecy (SFP) in which raising a manager’s expectations regarding worker performance boosts that performance. The Pygmalion effect debuted in educational psychology when psychologists experimentally raised elementary school teachers’ expectations toward a randomly selected subsample of their pupils and thereby produced significantly greater gains in achievement among
Some academicians may believe that only one who has had extensive formal training in a profession can make a substantial contribution to it. However, the numerous and important achievements of Mary D. Leakey invalidate this view because she never obtained a formal degree in her area of specialty, although she did receive a number of
Kulturkreise (culture circle or culture center) is an early 20th-century German diffusion theory based on the belief that a cultural trait evolved in a specific area and then grew to encompass additional societies. According to this theory, the areas in which cultural traits evolved can be identified and the diffusion of the traits can be
Strictly speaking, the !Kung are members of a Khoisan language family occupying the Kalahari regions of part of Namibia, Botswana, Angola, and Zambia; however, the term has come to be used conventionally to refer to the forager peoples of the Western Kalahari surrounding the border between Namibia and Botswana. Specifically, the term is often applied
Kwakiutl is the name given to the people of one of the tribes of British Columbia who know themselves as the Kwakwaka’wakw, and have five dialects to their Kwak’wala language that stems from the Wakashan phyla. The Kwakiutl are concentrated on the northern end of Vancouver Island, and have constructed a communal lifestyle, for the
Raoul Weston La Barre, an anthropologist of wide-ranging interests and great accomplishments, was born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania on December 13, 1911. By high school, he demonstrated the careful scholarship and versatility characteristics of his forthcoming career as a psychological anthropologist. He matriculated from Princeton (1933) and went on to Yale, earning his doctorate in 1937
Labor involves purposive effort, mental or physical, toward a goal. In studying labor, we should be particularly careful not to import the biases of our own economic culture. Labor is not always clearly segmented from other activities in daily life, although the wage labor system favors such segmentation; this confusion obscures unpaid labor within capitalism
Anthropologists refer to the division of labor as the different tasks that people do to provide for their physical needs and to reproduce their culture. We base these tasks on such criteria as age, gender, and skill. How this division is manifested varies across cultures and according to societal type. In the foraging, tribal, and
Joseph-François Lafitau was an important French Jesuit missionary scholar who closely observed the Mohawks and other Indians at the Jesuit mission of Sault-Saint-Louis opposite Montreal during the early 1700s. Social theorists describe him as a proto-anthropologist because he combined critical use of historic sources with careful (albeit not always accurate) use of the comparative method
Language, like culture, is something that is easier to discuss than to define, and no unitary definition is offered here. Instead, what anthropologists and linguists mean by language is better understood by trying to be clear about what does and does not count as language. In some cases, this involves disentangling folk uses of the
Both the biologist and the linguist are interested in how language evolved in the natural history of the human species. This process was embedded in the evolution of life from the first self-replicating macro-molecules to the wealth of species living today on Earth. The evolutionary thinker hits, therefore, on a more fundamental question: Is human
During the latter half of the twentieth century, most discussions about international television tended to focus on national media systems and relations of exchange among those systems. Since the 1990s, however, television has increasingly been studied as a global phenomenon. Although national systems still figure prominently, research and policy debates now explore the ways in
South Korea has emerged as a center of pop culture throughout Asia: its scope of cultural influence encompasses Eurasia (e.g., Uzbekistan, Mongolia, and Russia), East Asia (e.g., China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, and Japan), Southeast Asia (e.g., Cambodia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia), and even extends beyond Asia. Korea’s cultural products – notably, its
Med TV, the first Kurdish satellite TV channel, began its standard broadcasts in May 1995 from its head office in London and its main studios near Brussels. It was created by people close to the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), which had been conducting an armed struggle against the Turkish state since 1984. On the one
Le Monde Diplomatique (LMD) is a French monthly newspaper created in 1954 by Hubert Beuve-Méry, then editor of the Parisian newspaper of record, Le Monde. It is large format and typically runs to 32 pages, including color artistic photographs and art reproduction. It offers feature and political analysis articles, mostly of one to two pages
The term migrant community media, also known as ethnic or diasporic media, refers to the print, broadcast, and Internet-based operations of ethnic minorities. They have emerged in recent decades as a significant category of global media. Previously, such media operated by minority groups in various countries were treated as being of minor academic interest. For
The music industry is a term most commonly deployed in reference to the activities of the four largest transnational record corporations – often designated as the “majors” or the “big four,” namely SonyBMG, EMI (Electric and Music Industries), the Warner Music Group (WMG), and the Universal Music Group (UMG) – which collectively account for approximately
Media flows between countries have always been controversial. Fears of cultural consequences if imbalances occur and concerns about the symbolic value of cultural and media products have historically been at the heart of academic and political debates as well as public policies from governments. These dimensions of culture and media have generated great numbers of
The international radio station with the largest global audience and the one with the best-known name, the BBC World Service, began as the Empire Service on shortwave in 1932. Today, while most of its estimated weekly audience of 183 million (all figures given here are for 2007) continue to rely on direct transmission on shortwave
Bertelsmann Corporation, with headquarters in the small northern German city of Gütersloh, is one of the largest multinational media, information, and consulting corporations worldwide, with a turnover of almost 20 million euros and about 100,000 employees (all figures here are for 2006). If the size of the company is assessed on the basis not of
CCTV-9 is the global 24-hour English-language channel run by China Central Television (CCTV), the state-owned broadcaster of the People’s Republic of China (PRC; Newscast, 24-Hour). CCTV-9 has a dual function: (1) to provide news and information about China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao in line with government policy, and (2) to provide news and information
Commissioned by the U.S. Department of Labor’s Employment and Training Administration, the Occupational Information Network (O*NET) aspires to be America’s most comprehensive and widely applicable career development resource. A replacement for the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, O*NET’s primary feature is its detailed, research-based descriptions of nearly 1,000 occupations. Available as a database, an interactive Web
Career researchers and counselors emphasize the value of accurate information in the career planning process, and the Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH) is the most widely used source of occupational information in existence. Drawing on an ongoing U.S. Department of Labor data collection project, the OOH is a print and Internet reference designed to provide essential
Occupational stereotypes are a reflection of our tendency to use heuristics in our thinking about the world in the place of data. The result in this domain can be, and often is, prejudice and unequal opportunities for those demographic groups who become labeled. Classes of occupations can also suffer from generalizations made about them. However
On-the-job training, often referred to as OJT, occurs whenever more experienced employees teach less experienced employees how to do one or more of the tasks of a job. It is practical, hands on, and found in all organizations at almost every level. On-the-job training is the single most commonly used training method in organizations today. The
This comprehensive view of organizational career management systems discusses the portfolio of career planning and management practices available to organizations and explores ways by which organizations can use career systems to meet their needs. It focuses on organizational career management: what it is, why it is needed, and what it does. Special attention is given
Organizational psychologists—researchers and practitioners alike—have long been interested in understanding how people react, psychologically, to the various aspects of their workplace and in understanding the consequences of these psychological reactions. Given that most people are likely to spend at least some of their working careers as members of one or more organizations, it is perhaps
Organizational entry is a multistage process whereby a new employee is brought into an organization. This process, which can be examined both from an individual and an organizational perspective, generally includes such steps as the initial attraction and recruitment of a job candidate, the assessment and possible selection of that job candidate, and then the
Organizational image (OI) can be defined as a construction of the public impressions of an organization created to appeal to an external audience while simultaneously interpreted by the organization’s members. Construed external images, projected images, and desired future images can be developed and transmitted by mass media, public relations consultants, and savvy marketers. Typically, these
Organizational justice refers to judgments of the moral rightness or social appropriateness of events in the work environment. As studied by management scholars, this organizational justice or fairness (these terms tend to be used interchangeably) is treated as a subjective judgment made by an individual or group of individuals. Organizational justice research emphasizes the description
The mention of organizational politics is frequently met with harsh words and disparaging glances. Society, as a whole, has grown to view anything political with chagrin. Much of this disdain comes from the awareness that politicking, when successful, is associated with manipulation, and in some cases, verbal or physical intimidation. Moreover, the general public has
Clyde Kay Maben Kluckhohn was an early American anthropologist who made significant contributions to all four of anthropology’s subdisciplines. One of the last true generalists in the field, Kluckhohn communicated his ethnographic research in the American southwest, as well as his theories on culture and society, to the public in accessible volumes such as Mirror
Koba, located in the northeastern Yucatan peninsula in the modern Mexican state of Quintana Roo, functioned as a Classic Maya metropolis. The center was also occupied in the Preclassic and Postclassic periods. The site includes prominent archaeological features such as pyramids, tombs, vaulted structures on elevated platforms, staircases, altar stones, stone carved slabs (stelae), and
Wolfgang Köhler was born on January 21, 1887, in Rivel, Estonia. He was educated at the Universities of Tübingen and Bonn, and at the University of Berlin where he received his PhD in 1909. His doctoral dissertation was on psychoacoustics. Köhler is best known for his research in comparative psychology on the intellectual and problem-solving
Koko is a 180-pound, lowland gorilla who has been taught American Sign Language by developmental psychologist Francine “Penny” Patterson since July, 1972. Born on the fourth of July, 1971 at the San Francisco Zoo, the gorilla was named Hanabiko (Japanese for “fireworks child”), but she is best known by her nickname, Koko. With the possible
Russian biologist Aleksandr Kovalevskii (Kowalevsky) is notable for his foundational contributions to modern comparative embryology. Raised in a secular society with his brother Vladimir, Kovalevskii received his master’s degree from St. Petersburg University for his studies of Amphioxus lanceolatus. The results from his research gained him admittance into the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Paris Academy
The term Kula Ring refers to the circulation of shell valuables between island communities in the Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea. Bronislaw Malinowski was the first anthropologist to document the exchange in a classic anthropological text, Argonauts of the Western Pacific, written in 1922. Anthropologists working in the latter half of the 20th
Alfred Lewis Kroeber was an early American anthropologist who made significant contributions to all four of anthropology’s subdisciplines. Kroeber is significant for his research on North American indigenous populations, his dedication to characterization and classification methods in ethnographic research, and his advancement of a definition of culture as a superorganic phenomenon. He established one of
Russian paleontologist Vladimir O. Kovalevskii was noted for his contribution to the development of phylogenic sequences or stages of evolution in species with an adaptive perspective. Brother to biologist Aleksandr, Vladimir is perhaps best known for his depiction of the transitional sequence involving the species Equus. Although educated in law as an undergraduate, he paid
Peter (Pytor) Alekeyevich Kropotkin was a revolutionary and a philosopher; he was known for his works in other fields such as zoology, anthropology, and sociology. Kropotkin was the son of Prince Aleksey Petrovich Kropotkin of the old Russian aristocracy. He was educated in the elite Corps of the Pages, a special military school for boys
The English anthropologist Louis Leakey was known primarily for his discovery of Proconsul africanus, his interpretation of Zinjanthropus, his announcing the discovery of Homo habilis, and his great influence on primatology. Born in 1903 at Kabete Mission, Kenya, Leakey benefited from two distinct cultures: the English culture that was provided by his parents, Harry and
Commonly, “francophonie” carries three meanings: linguistic (those who have French in common); geographical (the peoples whose mother tongue, fluency, or administrative language is French); and a more mystical meaning, signifying membership of a collective community. But “Francophonie” (capital F) designates the movement and institutions initiated by French authorities after World War II in favor of
The free flow of information has been a key policy as well as a political aspect in the US government’s approach to international communication since World War II. There has often been a conflation of the term between a principle of democratic governance found in many national constitutions and United Nations agencies’ charters, and the
The first phase of a truly global media network ran from the 1860s through the 1920s. Two major interpretations of this era are available. One, long established, emphasizes how aggressive nation-states deployed communication firms to further their own economic and political goals in carving up the planet. Another, more recent, reads the period as one
An interconnected set of terms – globalization, global, globality – dominated analytic discourse toward the end of the twentieth century. The considerable disagreements among theorists are set out below. Then the specific issue of cultural globalization and its debates are addressed. Key Debates About Globalization One argument queried whether globalization was an old process, or
Theories of hybridity entered international communication research at a time when the cultural imperialism thesis was ceding ground to the media globalization paradigm. This has been controversial because “the idea of cultural hybridization is one of those deceptively simple-seeming notions which turns out . . . to have lots of tricky connotations and theoretical implications”
The global network of Independent Media Centers (IMCs), or “Indymedia,” is a groundbreaking example of the power of an online, multimedia network providing for instantaneous, decentralized global communication, unique in that it involves a network of nonprofit, autonomous media collectives. These new technological capacities are shifting the nature of news consumption and provoking debates about
Several emerging and existing international communication agencies spearhead the governance of the global media and communications environment. International communication agencies have both specialized and collective responsibilities to advance multilateral and multi-stakeholder cooperation and collaboration on the broad issues of global media governance, including the development of regulation instruments and guidelines for intellectual property, media concentration
International news reporting evolved with the advent of the telegraph in the mid-1800s. The explosion of foreign news that followed largely supported the colonial empires; it also focused on international conflicts involving them (while all but ignoring others). The concept of international reporting is itself contentious, beginning with the definition of “news.” Galtung and Ruge
Since radio broadcasting was launched shortly after World War I, it has served two culturally different, almost paradoxical, functions in relation to its distribution. On the one hand, it turned out to be one of the more effective instruments in the nation-building process, and on the other it was from its initial years distributed on
The first 25 years of Internet governance began with technicians at the helm. The 1990s saw an emerging struggle over the US government’s escalating attempts to dominate the Internet. Initial opposition came from the Internet’s technical community, but later a number of national governments also began to challenge the US strategy. The European Union (EU)
The term midlife crisis, or midlife transition, is generally defined as a period in an adult’s life, believed to occur at or around the age of 40, in which there is a reappraisal of life’s accomplishments, a more poignant recognition of health issues and ultimate mortality, and the potential for a change in lifestyle or
Morale has been a recognized business concept and management concern for as far back as the construction of the pyramids. Although managers intuitively understand what morale is, there is no crisp, universally accepted definition. Morale can be understood as a state of mind—a positive outlook toward the workplace, wherein work is fun and a source
Career motivation is the desire to exert effort to enhance career goals. It is a multidimensional construct that combines elements of needs, interests, and personality characteristics that reflect the stimulus, direction, and persistence of career-related behaviors. Career motivation is organized into three domains. Career insight is the stimulus or energizing component. This is people’s ability
This article considers the relationship between the internal motivation of people and their career development. The discussion centers on what has been theorized and researched connecting the internal drivers of behavior and decision making to career outcomes and career satisfaction. Generally, motivation can be defined as a force or energy that exists within a person and
A multicultural organization is defined as one that seeks and values all differences and develops systems and work practices that support the success and inclusion of members of every group. Multicultural organizations are characterized by equality, justice, and full participation at both the group level and the individual level. In multicultural organizations, differences of all
The growth of the multinational organization, which has been part of the globalization process in recent years, has had the effect of changing and internationalizing many careers. Through the development of foreign facilities and mergers with foreign companies, multinational organizations extend their business internationally and often become global in scope, at the same time retaining
The National Career Development Association (NCDA) is the home for approximately 3,800 practitioners, scholars, and students devoted to promoting the career development of all people over the life span. As the third largest division of the American Counseling Association, NCDA provides service to the public and professionals involved with or interested in career development. NCDA
The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) is the basic federal law that governs unionization and collective bargaining in the United States. When it was originally enacted in 1935, the NLRA was called the Wagner Act, based on the name of its main sponsor, Senator Robert Wagner of New York. The NLRA underwent major amendments in
Nepotism is generally defined as preference given to a relative by a person in a position of power in an organization. Nepotistic preferences are most often defined in terms of hiring decisions but may also be manifest in evaluations, pay decisions, and other personnel decisions. Anthropological theory and historical evidence suggest that hiring decisions are
The term career has been defined by several prominent behavioral scientists as a pattern of work-related experiences, including attitudes and behaviors, that span a person’s life. Such a definition encompasses different work referents, including job involvement, organizational commitment, occupational commitment, and work/nonwork roles. Adopting this definition suggests that a person can change jobs, organizations, and
Abram Kardiner was a psychiatrist and pioneering psychoanalyst who made major contributions to psychological and psychoanalytic anthropology as well as to his own professions. He was particularly interested in the psychological adaptation of the ego to war, society, oppression, and culture. Kardiner is best known in anthropology for his concepts of basic personality structure and
During his era, Sir Arthur Keith was one of the world’s most prominent anatomists and defenders of Darwinism. As Keith himself noted in his autobiography, he seemed fated to espouse causes and theories that fail to carry conviction, a notion that became even more accurate than he realized when he wrote it in 1947. Arthur
On July 28, 1996, the random discovery of a skull on the banks of the Columbia River near Kennewick, Washington changed the climate of archaeology. Discovered by two teenagers and initially examined by James Chatters, forensic anthropologist, this skull had many characteristics indicating its Caucasian origin. Characteristics of the skull’s teeth, however, suggested an extremely
One of a rash of new extinct hominid genera discovered and described during the turn of the 21st century, Kenyanthropus immediately garnered substantial press coverage and an onslaught of criticism after its naming in 2001. Characterized by its describers as a distinct genus that suggested a more complex early evolutionary history of the human lineage
Long recognized as an important genus for understanding the ancestry of great apes and humans, Kenyapithecus has been the subject of fierce taxonomic debate since its original discovery by noted paleoanthropologist Louis Leakey in 1961. Once seen as a direct ancestor of modern humans, Kenyapithecus is currently viewed as lying close to the origin of
Henry Bernard Davis Kettlewell, MD, an outstanding physician, lepidopterist and geneticist, is best known for his work on industrial melanism that so elegantly illustrates evolution in action it is now a feature of almost all basic biological texts. Kettlewell was also an energetic field researcher and co-founder of the significant Rothschild-Cockayne-Kettlewell Lepidoptera Collection in the
Kibbutz (plural: kibbutzim) is the Hebrew word for communal settlement, and it refers to a particular type of rural community in Israel. The basic principles on which the kibbutz is based are joint ownership of property, social and economic collectivism, cooperation in production, direct democracy, egalitarianism in work, and voluntarism. While initially agriculturally based, most
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on January 15,1929 in an area that, today, is a national historical site. His father was a minister and a prominent member of the community who served as a pastor at a nearby church. During King’s early days as a child, his parents attempted to
Kinship and descent are each notions that have been of particular preoccupation to social anthropologists, as much due to their importance as because of the difficulties they present. It is worthy to note their close link, stemming from a common social and biological character (only the former being necessary). In particular, kinship refers to social
The terminology of kinship, that is, the terms we use to name our kin, is one of the most important areas of study in the social anthropology of kinship. Kinship terminology is a message carrier, concurrently reflecting and determining social behavior. Kinship refers to social relationships that may or may not coincide with biological ones.
We constantly interact with people from different social groups to our own: cultures, ethnic groups, genders, ages, occupations, organizations, even clubs. We may wish to affiliate with another person or group, or to distinguish ourselves from them. We express this motivation through language and communication, and through our interpretation of others’ communication. The main communication
Historically, family scholarship has been guided by a Eurocentric perspective including the notion that families are ethnically homogeneous. Over the last few decades, a shift in social acceptance of interethnic relationships coupled with changes in national laws (e.g., a 1967 US Supreme Court ruling abolished the last legal barrier to interracial marriages) has resulted in
Normative conduct is a major component of systems of culture. Each culture has its specific norms for everyday social interaction. Differences in norms and cultural expectations often become grounds for intercultural miscommunication and misunderstanding. There are innumerable definitions of norms in the social science literature. For example, norms are defined as “rules of conduct,” “blueprints
Competent intercultural conflict management depends on many factors. One of the key factors is to increase our awareness and knowledge concerning diverse conflict styles and facework issues. Intercultural conflict can be defined as any implicit or explicit antagonistic struggle between persons of different cultures due, in part, to cultural or ethnic group membership differences. Beyond
Major social changes of the twentieth century include international air travel, global business expansion, increased migration across national boundaries, and recognition of the civil rights of various minority groups. This means that individuals will frequently come into contact with people from other nations and from other cultural groups within a large and diverse nation such
In the twenty-first century mankind lives in a more multicultural environment than ever before. For many health practitioners this means they have to interact with people from different cultures. Good communication is vital to effective health-care, so communication problems in intercultural encounters have the potential to lead to patient misdiagnosis. In such encounters health practitioners
The cultural imperialism thesis states, broadly, that a powerful country uses cultural means to achieve or support the political and economic ends of imperialism that were historically attained through military force and occupation. In this view, the tools of culture can smooth the way for domination by exposing people to lifestyles to aspire to, products
In the communication field, the term “cultural product” refers to media artifacts such as books, newspapers, magazines, recorded music, films, television programs, and related audiovisual materials. “Cultural product” succinctly conveys the juxtaposition that renders these artifacts controversial: they express cultural values of societies that produce them, yet are economic goods created, distributed, and engaged by
Deutsche Welle (DW) is a German news and information broadcasting channel that explicitly targets a worldwide audience. DW cannot be received within Germany. Deutsche Welle radio service is distributed via shortwave, Internet, and satellite, and its television service is delivered by satellite to relay stations as well as to households in various world regions. In
Though the Walt Disney Company began as an independent production company producing cartoons distributed by other companies, the company has developed into one of the largest entertainment conglomerates in the world. Early History, 1923 –1960 Walt Disney began cartooning in Kansas City with a series called Alice’s Wonderland (1923). Not long thereafter he and his
In recent times, a number of fundamental changes have taken place in production technologies, the nature of physical and human capital, and ideas about how to organize firms. The precise nature of the reorganization process naturally varies from firm to firm, but the evidence is now sufficiently clear to recognize some prominent features of ongoing
Job satisfaction (JS) is one of the most widely discussed and studied dimensions of employees’ work lives, with research dating back to the dawn of the twentieth century. Early definitions conceived of JS as a global affective or emotional reaction to one’s job. More recently, JS has been defined as comprising two distinct yet related components:
Job security is the stability and continuance of one’s current employment as one knows it to be. An appraisal of one’s job security involves an assessment of both one’s position and one’s employment within an organization. In other words, job security can be affected by the potential loss of employment and/or the potential loss of
Job sharing is a flexible working arrangement in which two or more individuals voluntarily share the responsibilities, pay, and benefits of a full-time position. In essence, job sharers convert one full-time job into two permanent part-time positions by coordinating task responsibilities while sharing the full-time equivalent of pay and fringe benefits. Job sharers may work
The term knowledge work refers to a profession that utilizes intellectual capital to create, teach, and problem solve. Knowledge work requires significant cognitive activity and dedication to continuous learning on behalf of the practitioner. Day-to-day knowledge work consists of non-routine and non-repetitive activities. Examples of knowledge workers include, but are not limited to, doctors, lawyers
Knowledge, skills, and abilities are often referred to as “KSAs.” They are part of many methods used to analyze jobs and work for purposes such as staffing and vocational counseling. All three terms concern human attributes needed to complete work tasks successfully. In other words, KSAs are cognitive and psychomotor informational digests and processes stored
As individuals age, the possibilities for age and career stage to be asynchronous are numerous. Many workers over age 50 are about to graduate from school to start new careers, and many individuals in their late 40s are retiring after 30 years of service. Following common usage in the area, the general boundaries of this
Careers unfold over time. Leadership also develops over time and often over an entire career. For these reasons, when discussing leadership development (as with careers), there is an inherent longitudinal focus. Development implies change and growth. Leadership development is mainly concerned with the intrapersonal change and growth of individual leaders, as well as the relational
The learning organization is a concept describing organizations in which learning and work are integrated in an ongoing and systematic fashion to sustain continuous improvement of the organization at three levels: individuals, work groups or teams, and the organization. A learning organization has the capacity to continuously learn and develop toward a collective vision. Learning
Lifelong learning is the facilitation of learning, growth, and development across the life span. It has also been referred to as lifelong education, and it is typically seen as reflective of a “learning society” or a “knowledge society.” Examples of lifelong learning include retraining adults for new jobs and new industries, informal and nonformal learning
Jarmo (Qal’at Jarmo), located in modern northern Iraq, is one of the oldest Neolithic agricultural settlements in the Middle East. Excavations here yielded much information on human society’s transition to sedentary agricultural practices. University of Chicago archaeologist Robert Braidwood spent several seasons between 1948 and 1955 excavating the village that dated between 9,250 and 7,750
In 1887 a Dutch anatomist, Eugene Dubois, joined the Dutch army as a means to bring him to south Asia to hunt for the “missing link.” His major interest was the theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin in 1854. Dubois received an assignment in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) where he assumed humans
Jewelry consists of any ornament that is placed on the body for any symbolic reason. Ornaments can be made of metals, shells, beads, textiles, clay, gems, stone, glass, or any components extracted from animals or plants. Sometimes worn as talismans, jewelry is found among every culture and society in forms rangings from rings, armlets, bracelets
The title Jews has multiple variations in meaning. Jew is a term that can refer both to adherents of the religion Judaism and to members of an ethnicity (those who are Jewish). In the religious sense, Jews are followers of Judaism, whether or not they are ethnically Jewish. In the ethnic sense, Jews are those
The Iroquois, or Houdounausee (People of the Longhouse), are an important nation of Native Americans who made significant contributions in molding North America. Their social and political systems as well as their way of life strongly influenced the way North Americans live today. They have been characterized as relentless warriors in addition to possibly being
When anthropology emerged as a science in the mid-to late 1800s, it was almost immediately corrupted by the biases of some of the individuals who pioneered it. The politics in Europe at the time had shifted heavily toward anti-Semitism. Because anthropology was a fledgling science, it was easy for these prejudices to infiltrate because there
American paleoanthropologist Donald Johanson is most notable for his discovery and interpretation of the fossil hominid Australopithecus afarensis. Originally born in Chicago, Illinois, of Swedish immigrants, Johnson faced adversity early in life. After the death of his father when Johanson was 2, his mother moved him to Hartford, Connecticut. Johanson’s interest in anthropology was stimulated
Sir William Jones was a British polymath whose scholarly research and vision were critical to both modern linguistics and Indology. In his founding of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta in 1784 and the journal Asiatic Researches, Jones set forth a broad, interdisciplinary program of research in Indian languages, religions, history, law, natural history, medicine, and
Justice refers to the constant and perpetual disposition of legal matters or disputes to render every person his or her due. The concept of justice traces its origin to the Greek language. The Greek work “dike” corresponds to the idea of staying in one’s assigned place or role. The Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle developed
Immanuel Kant was born on the 22nd of April, 1724, in Koenigsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad) and he died in the same city on the 12th of February, 1804. He was the fourth of nine children of his parents, Anna Regina, nee Reuter, and Johann Georg Kant, who both belonged to a Pietist branch of the
Prejudiced and discriminatory communication is studied in a wide range of social science disciplines, including communication, sociology, anthropology, and social psychology. Some forms, such as hate speech, are explicit, and they are recognized easily by an audience as reflecting prejudiced viewpoints. Other forms are more implicit: neither the speaker nor the audience may be aware
Exercising power over others is a common human experience. Children override the better judgment of their parents, displaying temper tantrums or simply nagging them to exhaustion. Parents in turn control their children using reason mixed with bribes and brute force, or the threat of it. In seemingly equal relationships such as that between spouses, people
Humans communicate verbally through words and nonverbally via facial expressions and body movements. Nonverbal communication refers to any human behavior, other than words, that serves a communicative purpose. Such behavior can occur voluntarily or involuntarily, either simultaneously with words or alone. Nonverbal communicative behaviors that have been under intensive research include high–low context, silence, turn-taking
With immigration and its attendant population diversity on the rise all around the world, how do we understand why people migrate, what they do when they arrive at their destinations, and what happens to the places they left? While immigration and migration are potentially rich sites of communication inquiry, communication theory and research is not
Research examining the influence of media exposure on audience members has long revealed that both the frequency and the nature of messages play a role in determining the outcomes of exposure. Consequently, documenting the manner in which different groups are represented in the media (alongside the rate of these depictions) is critical to understanding the
Goffman (1963) popularized the concept of stigma through his well-cited book, Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. He defined it as “an attribute that is deeply discrediting,” which reduces the bearer “in our minds from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one” (Goffman 1963, 3). Stigmatizing attributes include “abominations of
Although there is no consensus as to what precisely an attitude is, language attitudes may be defined as embodied dispositions toward various and wide-ranging language behaviors (e.g., intensity, politeness, rate, accent, dialect). Correspondingly, language attitude research represents a broad-scale, multidisciplinary effort to assess diverse reactions to language behaviors (Cargile & Bradac 2001). Within intergroup contexts
Organizations are intergroup in nature in that they are collections of people working together to achieve a common set of objectives. These objectives are typically around the creation of innovative products and services that meet the needs of customers, and organizations are always searching for new ways to deliver products and services that offer better
Intergroup contact occurs when a member or members of one social group come into contact with member(s) of another social group. Research has focused on whether such contact can influence attitudes about social groups, and whether certain types of contact yield the most positive prejudice-reduction outcomes. Typically, the specific group memberships have significance in the
Relationships and communication between social groups of all kinds is an increasingly pressing topic in a globalized world in which there are conflicts of resources, religions, and ideologies. Discursive psychology’s distinct contribution is to try to understand this topic through studying how discourse works in the practical settings in which intergroup issues become live. These
Organizations have always been faced with the dilemma of using external or internal labor markets. Hiring and promotion practices vary depending on whether firms use internal or external labor markets. External-labor-market firms concentrate on recruiting from the outside, while internal-labor-market firms concentrate on promotions from within. Organizations that depend on an internal labor market make hiring
Most employees used to have chiefly domestic careers in which, in the main, they did not carry out international, across-country work. The exceptions were the small number of employees, or “expatriates,” deployed by their organizations on assignments abroad. By contrast, many employees now carry out international work in their jobs, and their careers are more
Since the early 1990s, there has been a dramatic change in the process of employee recruitment due to the emergence of the Internet as a significant means of exchanging employment information. The Internet is used today around the world by organizations of all sizes and in every industry. Job seekers can leverage the Internet using
An internship is a short-term work experience that provides the opportunity to explore an area of career interest, an occupation, or an industry. Typically, internships last for a semester, but they can last up to a year. Internships are designed to reinforce academic theory with real-life experience. The internship activity is supervised and is concurrent
Job challenge can be described as the extent to which a job is stimulating and interesting. Challenging jobs provide an opportunity to strengthen, develop, and learn skills applicable to the work world. A common theme in the research literature is that employees desire work experiences that include challenging jobs and that such jobs increase employee
Job design, or work design, refers to a process of dividing an organization’s total work into various jobs and assigning tasks to those jobs. It may also involve examining the goals and interdependence of tasks as well as the interpersonal relationships involved in accomplishing work. Because the tasks involved in doing a job and how
Job fairs serve as one of the primary connections between employers and prospective job candidates. They provide an opportunity for both the employer and potential employee to diversify their search strategies. There are many types of job fairs, but all serve a dual purpose of enabling hiring organizations to meet and screen a large number
The job interview is one of the most popular selection techniques, and it is typically defined as an exchange of information between interviewers and applicants. Interviewers are interested in determining whether an applicant has the necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities to do the job. They are looking for a person-job fit, the match between the
Throughout the research literature of the past four decades, a number of different terms have been used to describe an employee’s level of involvement in his or her job; among these are work as a central life interest, occupational involvement, work role involvement, ego involvement, morale, job commitment, and, of course, job involvement. Furthermore, in
Outsourcing, offshoring, downsizing, rightsizing, and reorganizing: Every day, local and national headlines proclaim events that mean just one thing to workers— their jobs are at risk. Job loss, as discussed here, is the involuntary removal of paid employment from an individual. Those who experience job loss are known by many different names: they are “laid
In the 20th century, value inquiry had been greatly influenced by numerous impressive developments in biology, anthropology, and psychology, as well as evolutionary ethics in natural philosophy and new concepts in process theology. This progress in the special sciences includes fossil hominid discoveries, wild ape behavior studies, and genetic engineering research. The differences between the
Instinct is the general term applied to unlearned behavior. Behavior is a result of neural wiring and the response of those circuits to sensory input, hormones, and internal feedback. In the early years of the 20th century, Ivan Pavlov studied conditioning of stimulus — response reactions to novel cues. His work led to J. B.
Intelligence is a concept that is believed to be made up of a set of complex behaviors. It is described as the ability to problem solve, to perceive objects in one’s environment, to understand spatial relationships, to remember, classify, calculate, and reason. It is analogous with cognition, a mental quality comprising one’s ability to learn
Intercultural education may be viewed as an application of cultural anthropology to the design and implementation of formal educational curricula, largely in prebaccalaureate programs. Its goal is to instill in students an appreciation of other cultures so as to offset a dogmatic and unproductive ethnocentric worldview. In an interconnected world where the capability to deal
When the United States decided to reverse the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, it did not act unilaterally. It turned to the United Nations Security Council. When the Security Council sought to learn the extent of chemical, biological, and nuclear arms in Iraq, it did not rely on U.S. forces. It dispatched inspectors from the International
The Iron Age is the final period of European prehistory. The beginning of the European Iron Age is conventionally defined as the date when iron replaced bronze for the manufacture of weapons and tools in the early 1st millennium BCE. In many parts of Central and Western Europe, the Iron Age ends when these regions
Inuit is the term used to identify the indigenous peoples of the Canadian Arctic. Inuit (singular, Inuk) means “people” in Inuktitut, Inuinnaqtun, and Inuvialuktun, the three dialects of the Canadian High Arctic. The term has replaced “Eskimo” in most political discourse. Eskimo is an external label, long believed to have its origins as an Algonquian
Rain-fed agriculture, the converse of irrigated agriculture, has traditionally meant cultivation of plants without adding additional water beyond that which falls naturally on them from the sky or flows to them as surface water. Obviously, there is a spectrum of human intervention between minor flood control management and massive irrigation works, as well as a
One of the world’s major and fastest-growing religions, Islam is practiced by about 1.3 billion adherents throughout the world, about one fifth of the world’s population. A monotheistic faith, Islam literally means “submission to the will” of God in Arabic, the language of its origin and of its sacred text, the Koran. Islam was founded
On May 14,1948, the State of Israel declared its independence. Located in the Middle East, it is bordered by Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Egypt, and the Mediterranean Sea. Although only about 290 miles long and 85 miles wide, Israel has a varied topography, including desert, fertile valleys, forests, and a coastal plain. It also contains the
The concept of culture was first found useful by social anthropologists in studies of tribal societies. More recently, it has also been used to analyze differences between industrialized societies. A culture can be said to exist when a number of persons interpret the events around them in relatively similar ways. These shared interpretations typically include
Studies of culture have been conducted in a variety of productive ways in several academic fields; one might say the same about studies of communication, while also saying as much for ethnographic studies. Adding this variety, that is, all three of these, together can create an unwieldy assortment of theories and research reports. Saying something
Specific communication disabilities affect the ability to understand and produce language. The most common hearing disabilities are congenital deafness and age-related hearing impairments. The primary causes for difficulties with the production of spoken language are traumatic brain injury, stroke, and dementia (Alzheimer’s and related diseases). Of additional relevance is the impact of visual impairment on
Diversity has become an important topic in workplaces around the world, as nations experience changes in demographics. Many countries are adjusting to increases in numbers of nontraditional workers, especially women, older persons, and people with disabilities. Meanwhile, due to global economics, industrialized areas are witnessing influxes of skilled and unskilled migrants seeking employment (Cheney &
The vitality of language communities can affect the quality of intergroup communication between speakers of contrasting language groups. This is the case where accent, dialect, and language not only provide important cues for the categorization of speakers, but also serve as salient dimensions of ethnic identity. Vitality is defined as “that which makes a group
One of the most controversial topics that a democratic society faces is the issue of regulating the speech of its citizens. As Delgado and Stefancic suggest in Must we defend Nazis? Hate speech, pornography, and the new First Amendment (1997), the notion of “free speech” in a democratic society is a misnomer, as social institutions
Arab satellite television emerged in the context of the 1991 Gulf War. Since then, the evolution of the industry has evinced two changes of direction. First, there was a shift, in the 1990s, from officially sanctioned national broadcasting systems to a process of regional media integration. The second shift occurred around 2000, toward specialization and
The term “Americanization” has been used with varying intended meaning and with varying degrees of precision over the last three or four decades of communication research. The common element is a reference to a process or trend affecting either the media of countries external to the USA or the generality of media and media-related practices
Advertising is the key link in the mutually sustained global expansion of consumer goods and services industries and the media of communication that carry their commercial messages. In this structural context, advertising is much more than the images and brand names that form the surface of consumer culture. It is the life-blood of the media
The journalist Walter Lippmann introduced the notion of stereotypes in 1922 and described them as “pictures in our heads”. Current psychological theory conceptualizes those “pictures” as cognitive structures or schemas that represent widely shared beliefs about the defining characteristics of social groups (Operario & Fiske 2004). Any group might be subject to stereotypes, but the
Handwriting analysis, or graphology, as it is otherwise called, is the study of an individual’s handwriting sample done in order to make judgments about the individual’s personality traits or his or her tendency to behave in certain ways. The major use of contemporary handwriting analysis is as a staffing tool by business organizations. Job applicants
This article outlines the main schools within the broad area of career theory, which here have been defined as (a) a sociological perspective focusing on the structural influences over one’s working life and the interplay between individuals and institutions, (b) an “individual differences” or vocational perspective concentrating on fitting round pegs into round career holes
A hostile working environment is an evolving theory of discrimination that derives from various federal antidiscrimination statutes that prohibit discrimination in employment on the basis of race, religion, color, sex, national origin, disability, or age (for persons 40 years and older). This theory recognizes that it is discriminatory for an employer to subject an employee
Human capital consists of the knowledge, skills, general intelligence, educational attainments, and personality characteristics of an individual and covers all strengths and assets of a person. The concept is rooted in two different fields, economics and psychology, thus resulting in two somewhat different perspectives. Human Capital in Economics Economists as well as industrial and organizational
A person’s identity develops as a consequence of the interplay between biological, psychological, sociological, and historical influences. At its core, it emerges out of the individual’s efforts to maintain a sense of personal uniqueness and continuity in the face of changing developmental tasks and life circumstances—and at the same time feel a sense of solidarity
Impression management (IM) is the process by which people attempt to influence the images that others have of them. That is, IM describes the many strategies that individuals use in an attempt to be seen in a certain way or to create a particular impression in others’ minds. Related concepts include self-presentation, influence tactics, organizational
The Industrial Revolution refers to a societal shift that occurred when agricultural economies changed to economies driven by industry. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the eighteenth century and by the turn of the twentieth century had swept many regions of Europe and the United States. The significant and rapid changes brought about by
It is no secret that jobs vary widely with respect to the pay, benefits, security of employment, and intrinsic rewards they offer. What is less well-known is that many of these disparities have been growing in recent decades, reversing a trend toward equalization that dates back to the Great Depression. This article describes inequality in
To find the best employees, companies and organizations conduct time-intensive and costly recruiting activities resulting in numerous interviews with multiple candidates to fill just one vacancy. The interview process, from the employer’s perspective, is to find the best-qualified candidate who has the right match for the job and the company. The job seeker, on the
Integrity testing refers to the task of assessing an individual’s integrity, usually within a preemployment assessment situation, for the purposes of determining whether that person might be considered suitable for employment in a specific job role. Until recently, integrity was viewed as synonymous with the term honesty, and thus integrity testing originally referred to the
The Ik are a hunter-gatherer and agricultural group who live in the Morungole mountains, around the Kidepo Valley, in northeastern Uganda. They are few, numbering several thousand, but are famous within anthropology because of Colin Turnbull’s extraordinary book The Mountain People, for which he was roundly criticized within anthropology. Turnbull is perhaps the only anthropologist
The incest taboo, considered a universal taboo, forbids marriage or sexual relations with a close relative. However, there are problems with any definition of the incest taboo because the definition of “close relative” varies tremendously among different cultures, the taboo is universal only with very inconsistent applications, some writers restrict the definition to opposite-gender relations
The term evolution comes from the Latin word evolvere, which means to develop or to unfold. It is equivalent to the Sanskrit word vikas, which means more than growth. It describes a series of related changes in a system of some kind. It is a process in which hidden or latent characteristics of a thing
The Iroquoians are a group of linguistically related Native American nations that occupied portions of eastern North America for over a century before contact with Europeans. In addition to their language similarities, Iroquoians in the northeast region of the continent utilized similar technologies and followed similar settlement patterns and subsistence strategies, particularly prior to first
The content of Indian philosophy signifies the unbroken philosophical lineage beginning with the Rig Veda (ca. 2000 BCE), flagging one of the oldest continuing philosophical traditions in the history of global culture. This entry summarizes the basic orientations of some of the textual and conceptual regions selected from this vast philosophical history, paying special attention
Rituals are part of India’s rich cultural heritage. Religion is one of the prime social areas in which rituals function. A ritual may be defined as a type of organized behavior. It acts as a conservative force, binding the members of community. Ritual is mainly of two types: one that is directly related with religious
The Southeast Asian country of Indonesia is composed of 17,508 islands (6,000 inhabited) and straddles the equator from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. In area, it is more than three times the size of Texas. Indonesia has a hot, humid, tropical climate that is more moderate in the volcanic highlands. The earliest inhabitants
In the second half of the third millennium (25001900 BC), a civilization flourished in the northwestern sector of the Indian subcontinent. It extended from Afghanistan into portions of Baluchistan in Pakistan, to the Indus Valley and along the tributaries of the Indus River, eastward to the Himalayan foothills and Indo-Gangetic plain, and southward to the
Native individuals who provide information to an ethnographer during fieldwork are referred to as informants. The term implies a procedure during ethnographic interviewing in which semistructured or informal in-depth questions are asked in a naturalistic setting, and informants answer. Recently, other terms such as consultants or collaborators have been preferred, indicating the greater participatory and
The Ejagham civilization is one of the most ancient civilizations in the world. The Ejagham nation extends from Manyu Division in the southwest province of the Republic of Cameroon to the Cross River State in the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Long years of contact with the outside world, especially European civilizations, have greatly tempered the
Questions of media ethics address the way media practitioners – journalists, public relations (PR) representatives, bloggers, technical support staff – resolve various types of dilemmas they face, as well as the value judgments that media audiences make regarding media content and performance. What does it mean to be “responsible” as a media professional? How should
Ethnic journalism is the practice of journalism by, for, and about ethnic groups. Because ethnicity is a historical and relational construction (Jackson & Garner 1998), the interplay of power and difference is central to the ways scholarly research defines ethnic media. Ethnic journalism relates to how difference is recreated and connected to the social, political
We live in an increasingly diverse world, not only in terms of ethnic heritage, but also in the forms of communication available. With so many information resources to choose from, how do we make sure that communication campaigns reach target audiences? Ethnicity is often implicated in the formation of knowledge gaps, in which certain portions
It is commonly assumed that an ethnographic film is any documentary about nonwestern cultures. There is scholarly debate about its parameters. Some suggest all film is ethnographic (Heider 1976), while others restrict the term to films produced by anthropologists (Ruby 2000). There are no up-to-date histories of ethnographic film. The scholarly literature in the field
What are the means of communication used by people when they conduct their everyday lives; and what meanings does this communication have for them? These are central questions guiding the ethnography of communication. The ethnography of communication is an approach, a perspective, and a method to and in the study of culturally distinctive means and
The vitality of language communities can affect the quality of intergroup communication between speakers of contrasting language groups. This is the case where accent, dialect, and language not only provide important cues for the categorization of speakers, but also serve as salient dimensions of ethnic identity. Vitality is defined as “that which makes a group
Communication in its simplest form refers to the ongoing process of sharing and understanding meaning. Many intercultural communication problems stem from the different ways that messages are composed, transmitted, and interpreted. Human beings depend on a variety of philosophical, social, psychological, and institutional standards or criteria of conduct to arrive at reasonable, appropriate, and meaningful
It is widely accepted that communication, whether presented as a manner of acting, a style of conversing, or a fashioning of language, functions in many modes to bring individuals to some awareness of each other as members of a collective. This conceptualization of modes as signifying forms of social activity is in contrast to the
Traditional Islamic modes of communication have evolved to become very effective at enhancing conformity and obedience, and in strengthening ingroup cohesion. Three illustrative examples are discussed here: the azan (call to prayer), the daily prayer, and the month of Ramadan. It is particularly important to attend to Islamic modes of communication, because Islam is the
An understanding of values and worldviews can greatly inform our understanding of the modes of both face-to-face and mediated communication in the so-called western world. The terms “eastern” and “western” are problematic. Stevenson (1994, 178), for example, classifies Japanese media systems under his rubric of Western mass media. However, for want of alternatives, these terms
The Equal Pay Act, which passed into law in the United States in 1963, requires that employers provide female and male employees an equal amount of pay when both perform the same jobs. When a female worker on a job alleges a violation of the act, she must prove that (a) her work was “equal”
Erik Erikson set forth a theory of ego identity development to account for the interactions between psychological, social, historical, and developmental factors in the formation of personality. Perhaps no single theoretician has had a greater impact on the way we perceive adolescent identity development than E. H. Erikson. His writing seems timeless, and ideas from
Executive coaching involves one-on-one discussions between an executive and a behavioral science professional on topics involving skills and style in a professional setting. Coaching has several advantages over other types of executive development options, such as class activities, group facilitation, and consulting advice. Convenience, relevance, and the self-directed nature of executive coaching are important advantages
An exit interview is a discussion between a departing employee and a representative of the organization that occurs in the last days of an employee’s tenure. The interviewer is typically a manager or a human resources professional. The interview usually takes place on company property during work hours. Exit interviews are widely believed to be
The distinction between exempt and nonexempt employees, a familiar dichotomy indicating exemption from certain federal labor regulations, was created through the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938. The act instituted many taken-for-granted characteristics of employment in the United States: the five-day workweek, the 40-hour workweek, and overtime pay. The written intent of the act
Family background and careers are robust constructs, each of which subsumes a complex network of conditions and behaviors. They are interconnected; that is, the definition of one construct in isolation is somewhat limited because it depends on the other construct for complete meaning. The workings of a career are embedded within the workings of the
Gender influences a wide range of career-related attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes. This includes career choice, career experiences, occupational health, work attitudes, other people’s perceptions, and career outcomes. Therefore, to understand individuals’ careers, it is important to consider gender. Gender and Career Choice Men and women differ considerably in their career choices, and many factors contribute
The American Heritage Dictionary defines aspiration as a strong desire for high achievement, or an object of this desire. According to this definition, an aspiration is either the desire to achieve an end state or the end state itself (goal). Theoretical interpretations of aspirations encompass both elements of the above definition. Researchers have defined the
In recent decades, women and people of color have made considerable progress in moving into management jobs, but they tend to be concentrated in lower and middle levels in the management hierarchy. Particularly at large, private sector companies, the majority of key senior-management positions are still held by Caucasian men. The term glass ceiling is
The term career development represents a large body of theory and research that seeks to explain the structure and the development of career behavior, personal identity in work and other life roles, and factors that influence career decision making. Even though such a perspective on the functions of career development is accurate, it oversimplifies the
While the word humanism is recent, the idea of humanism is one of the oldest and most transnational worldviews in human history. Most world-views are defined in terms of the distinctive beliefs they hold, but the principal feature of humanism is not so much its core articles of belief, but the method by which inquiry
Anthropology, the study of human beings in their bedazzling variety, eternally provokes questions about what human beings share, about their similarity, unity, or identity. The doctrine of the psychic unity of humankind is an answer to that question. Humans, it claims, are characterized by something more than merely biological unity. Equally, they are characterized by
Dinosaurs were a diverse and successful group of animals whose remains have fascinated us and inspired myths that persist into modern times. Although the last dinosaur died 63 million years before the first human, some stories infer contemporaneous existence or defy the fact of their demise. Behind these narrative relationships may lie an innate interest
Alexander von Humboldt felicitously combined acute observation and scientific method with indefatigable energy levels and enormous curiosity. The Age of Humboldt, as some called it, was an age in which scientific method first conquered speculation and the world became a single world where the same processes, physical and human, could be thought to apply everywhere.
Contrary to the traditional conception of human beings as essentially purely rational, David Hume, Scottish philosopher, historian, and essayist, argued that both reason and passion are essential parts of human nature. On the basis of his view of human nature, he hoped to radically reconstruct the moral discourse of his time. This led to his
Samuel P. Huntington is one of the most talked-about and controversial political scientists in the world today. Huntington asks the question, “Who are we?” of Americans, contrasting many different cultures to our own. Instead of a unipolar world in which America is the lone superpower, he sees humanity instead more accurately organized into nine major
Evolutionary humanism is a philosophical point of view centered on human interests and values in the context of natural selection and additional forces of evolution. Evolutionary humanists have called attention to the unity of the body and the mind, human continuity across populations and with other life forms, and natural instead of supernatural explanations. Evolutionary
Hylobates is the sole genus of primates in the family Hylobatidae. The family, whose members are known as lesser apes, includes the gibbons (Hylobates spp.) and siamangs (H. syndactylus). Hylobates are called “lesser apes” due to their stature (5-12 kg) and height (about 3 feet), which are smaller than the great apes (orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees
On September 9, 1991, a German couple from Nuremberg, Helmut and Erika Simon, were hiking the trails along the Niederjochferner Glacier, at about 3,200 meters in the Otzal Alps, which lie east of the Inn River along the border of Italy and Austria, when they discovered a corpse, the upper part of which protruded from
The term ideology is etymologically divergent. A derivation from the rarely transmitted Greek ideologia (opinion, discourse) must be denied due to the extremely differing meanings of the term today. Ideology rather derives from a combination of the Greek nouns eidos (appearance, form, term, imagination, idea, archetype) or eidolon (picture, illusion, idol) and logos (speech, doctrine
Defining communication in Africa as well as the African diaspora is a complex task involving both cultural commonalities and differences. African communication itself reflects a complex mix of cultural values from the cultures and traditions spread across the vast continent. While some traditional values have been fervently preserved throughout the continent, the myriad of outside
Collective action may be defined as any behavior that is directed at fulfilling a goal shared by two or more people. Examples of collective action include the chants and audience waves of sports crowds, race riots, language revival movements, political election campaigns, military action, and political protests. In essence, communication scholars have been concerned with
Approaching bilingualism and multilingualism from a communication perspective sheds light on a phenomenon which otherwise would appear static and asocial. MerriamWebster’s online thesaurus defines bilingualism as “the ability to speak two languages: the frequent oral use of two languages,” and multilingual as “of, containing, or expressed in several languages” and “using or able to use
William B. Gudykunst (1985) extended Berger and Calabrese’s (1975) uncertainty reduction theory to explain the reduction of uncertainty in intergroup encounters as the first step in developing anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) theory. He developed a model of intergroup communication by integrating URT and social identity theory in several stages. Gudykunst and Hammer (1988) also developed a
Millions of people cross cultural boundaries each year. Immigrants and refugees seek a new life away from their familiar grounds, along with various groups of temporary sojourners – from employees of multinational corporations, missionaries, diplomats, and military personnel, to professors, researchers, high school and college students, musicians and artists, and doctors and nurses. Although individual
Visual perception is a seemingly effortless process for most people. However, it is not the case that the human brain receives information just as it exists in the environment. Vision is an active process, and while information from the outside world becomes transformed into information sent to the visual cortex, there are a number of
Speech fluency refers to clear oral communication devoid of speech errors. A speaker who is able to deliver a message that features a continuous flow of information at an appropriate rate, unmarred by any of the multiple speech errors, is said to possess speech fluency, an area of communication mastery. Speech fluency is the product
Selective attention refers to the differential processing of multiple sources of information that are available at the same time (Johnston & Dark 1986). These information sources are generally in the external environment, though they need not be. For example, internal information sources, like memory, may also hold attention. Further, selective attention refers not simply to
Understanding and production of messages and social behaviors are based on communicators’ prior knowledge, which is organized and structured by schemas (Bartlett 1932; Rumelhart 1980). Over the years, researchers have identified different kinds of schemas, such as frames, story schemas, macro-structures, scenarios, mental models, scripts, and memory organization packets (MOPs). Scripts are event schemas; that
Journalism ethics is a branch of applied philosophy of moral values and rules. Beginning with moral issues in medicine, the field expanded since the mid-twentieth century to include such professions as law, business, journalism, and engineering. Applied ethics has developed over the decades from merely describing actual moral behavior to establishing principles that guide decision-making.
There is no strict legal definition of early retirement, as a mandatory retirement age is illegal for most occupations in the United States. Individuals can begin receiving Social Security benefits from 65 to 67 years of age, depending on year of birth. Therefore, early retirement is often defined as choosing to leave the workforce prior
When employees regulate their emotions in order to display the emotions that are expected of them in workplace interactions, they are performing emotional labor. They may do this by suppressing or hiding their real feelings and, instead, expressing emotions that they do not actually feel, that is, surface acting. Surface acting involves putting on an
Historically, the majority of employability research and practice pertained to vocational rehabilitation or to the attractiveness and selection of job candidates. Employable individuals are able to demonstrate a fundamental level of functioning or skill to perform a given job, or an employable individual’s skills and experience fit some predetermined set of job requirements. Conceptually, both
Employee participation in organizational decision making allows employees to have a say in decisions that affect their working lives in some way. Nevertheless, this apparently benign definition masks a number of complexities. The main problem is that different parties in the employment relationship may differ on the procedure by which employee voice is expressed and
Employment advertising is a medium for posting employment opportunities through ads that appear in public media, most notably newspapers, magazines, and Internet sites. Ads appear in all countries in the Western world and to a lesser extent in other parts of the world, generally in dedicated sections of newspapers, typically in proximity to sections covering
Unlike many years ago, when employers and employees began the working relationship with a simple trusting handshake, today’s employment often begins with lengthy employment contracts and careful scrutinizing, discussion, and negotiation. Such contracts are often necessary to reduce the potential for expensive litigation on a multitude of issues, although in many cases, it is advantageous
One of the most frequently discussed topics in contemporary management literature is the notion of employee empowerment. Empowerment is generally taken to mean the delegation of decision-making authority and responsibility to lower-level employees in a process of directed authority. However, this traditional top-down approach to empowerment is no longer viable, as the shift to a
Entrepreneurship is the recognition and exploitation of market opportunities. Recognizing that an opportunity exists is not enough; to be entrepreneurial involves the pursuit of that opportunity. Therefore, being an entrepreneur involves both cognition and behavior. As a state of mind, entrepreneurship is valuable within existing organizations as well as in the establishment of new ventures.
Awareness has been defined as a relatively complete and accurate perception of individuals’ qualities and the characteristics of their environments. It can be of two types: self-awareness and environment awareness. Self-awareness refers to the realistic and accurate perception of one’s interests, values, skills, limitations, and lifestyle preferences. Environment awareness has been characterized as the accurate
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is a five-member commission appointed by the president of the United States and confirmed by the Senate. The EEOC was created by Congress to be the primary enforcement mechanism of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Title VII prohibits discrimination in hiring, terms or conditions of employment
For more than 50 million years, the canopy environment has placed stringent evolutionary conditions upon existence within its domain. Primates are a result of that process. Some examples of primate adaptations traditionally attributed to evolution within the canopy include binocular and color vision, long arms and legs, fingernails, grasping thumb, broad shoulders, enlarged brain, vertical
One common characteristic seen across the whole primate species is its competitive nature. Whether it’s competing to rise in the status hierarchy or competing in the Super Bowl or Stanley Cup Finals, primates as a whole engage in competition regularly. During the competitive stages, several physiological and psychological changes take place. The physiological changes have
Human dignity is of central importance today, particularly in the fields of medical ethics and bioethics, as it represents a fundamental constituent of many contemporary constitutions, the most global being the Charter of the United Nations. It is, however, far from clear what the term human dignity means. The expression itself may be inappropriate, as
As a term indicating well-developed skills pertaining to performing various tasks for personal gain and group benefit, human excellence may be found in all cultures. As a perfected ability in carrying out assigned work for survival, whether in hunting, war, or other activities, such as ritual dancing, excellence has been valued and recognized as well
The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an international project that was coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health. Other major partners and additional contributions came from the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, and China. This project was formally initiated in October 1990 and finally completed in 2003. However, analyses
Paleontology is the study of fossil animals and plants. Human paleontology focuses exclusively on fossils related to the human lineage. Human paleontology is highly interdisciplinary; to recover, describe, and interpret human fossil remains, its researchers need knowledge of cultural anthropology, archaeology, biology, paleontology, and geology. Fossils, the remains or imprints of dead organisms, are the
The term human rights refers to a set of legal and normative standards according to which all humans are ordained with certain rights irrespective of the cultural or social circumstances of their lives. Although the concept has considerable historical antecedents, modern human rights can be said to have been inaugurated with the establishment of the
Every day, year after year, women grotesquely disfigured by fire are taken to Victoria Hospital’s burn ward here in India’s fastest growing city. They are in rows, wrapped like mummies in white bandages, their moans quieted by the pain-obliterating drip of morphine. Typically, these women, and thousands like them, have been depicted as victims of
Human variation, historically a topic of much opinion, debate, and fallacy, is ruled today by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) technology that was absent from early classification systems. Before the onset of European exploration in the late 15th century, it was believed that humans were descended from a single pair and should not be placed into different
Within the discipline of anthropology, the subfield of humanism focuses on reason, logic, and scientific explanations for human existence, being skeptical of purely religious interpretation. Proponents of this approach, such as T. Willliam Hall, in the text Religion, state, “This interpretation of human existence dispenses with belief in the supernatural, considers the good of humanity
An important and enduring question for communication science concerns why people interact in the ways they do. This issue has been simplistically framed as a “nature– nurture” question although the process is substantially more complex than can be captured by a dichotomous metric. Until the early 1970s, genetic inheritaance played a central role in accounts
Our mental architecture is shaped in a way that helps us to deal with our complex environment. Since much of our everyday behavior and many of our experiences are repetitive and routine, our knowledge of regular aspects of the world can be organized in a highly structured way. One important theory about the organization of
The theory of planned behavior (TPB) is one of a class of related theories of behavior change. The theory was developed by Icek Ajzen (1985, 1991) as an extension of the theory of reasoned action (TRA; Fishbein & Ajzen 1975), itself a model of behavior change. The TRA originated as a solution to the problem
Of the numerous functions the news media perform in contemporary society, perhaps none is so basic as their role in distributing information. In many democratic theories, broad and equitable distribution of timely news is viewed as necessary for sound public opinion and popular decision-making. Students of journalism, mass communication, and politics have consequently invested considerable
Mindlessness is the automatic (nonconscious) management of behavior. Mindless behavior is studied under many varied and related names: mindlessness, automaticity, tacit knowledge, implicit learning, implicit cognition, nonconscious processing and, as one recent popular book puts it, “blink” (Langer 1978; Lewicki 1986; Reber 1993; Bargh & Ferguson 2000; Gladwell 2005; Litman & Reber 2005). Langer introduced
The object of research on message production is to answer the question, “Why do people say what they do?” The academic sources on this topic come from across the academy, notably cognitive science, discourse studies, and artificial intelligence, and from several specializations in communication, especially persuasion, interpersonal communication, and argumentation. Unconnected research was done by
Message editing is the process whereby speakers review and sometimes revise a message plan prior to speaking. At lower levels of linguistic output, a not-yet-spoken clause might be checked for consistency with phonemic, syntactic, and/or lexical rules. At more abstract planning levels, the acceptability of a message plan could be assessed by comparing it against
The major premise of message design logics is that individuals have different ways of reasoning (“design logics”) about communication. These individual differences affect how messages are structured to achieve goals. As such, message design logic provides a “rational goal analysis” of a speaker’s understanding of means–end relations in communication, which results in a range of
Researchers who study person memory examine how perceivers store and recall information about a social target in order to understand how that information is structured in the perceiver’s mind. Understanding the structure and organization of social information is important because it influences the way we perceive and process subsequently encountered targets, making it a crucial
Memory is critical to communication. The near-instantaneous understanding of a familiar word in a conversation, recognizing an advertising image, mentally disagreeing with a politician’s speech, feeling sympathy for a soap opera character, understanding why today’s events in an ongoing news story are important, and countless other responses to communication are all connected in some way
Contingent employment has become pervasive in contemporary society. It is a multifaceted phenomenon with significant implications for career development, occupational and economic opportunity, and employment security. The employment of people on a contingent basis is a trend found in all the advanced industrialized countries of the world. Understanding the many faces of contingent employment, therefore
Continuing professional education (CPE), or continuing education, is the education of professionals in a variety of fields and practice that offers preparation for a particular career or extends the individual’s knowledge and learning within a profession. CPE helps learners keep their knowledge current, build competencies, progress through a career, achieve promotions, and even shift into
Cooperative education is a structured educational model in which students alternate between periods of classroom study on campus and periods of paid work at job sites away from campus. Cooperative education relates to career development because it is a means of career exploration that is a comprehensive intervention, including self-assessment, feedback, general and specific information
With the growth and evolution of entrepreneurship research in recent decades, new terminology has emerged to describe various types and dimensions of entrepreneurship. Copreneurship is one such term. It is a new term for an old pattern of work: husbands and wives or couples with marital or marital-like relationships working together in the same business.
People have self-thoughts about many personal attributes that together form a multifaceted self-view (i.e., self-concept). For example, a woman might think of herself as smart, caring, and dependable (her personal self-concept) but also as fiscally conservative and socially liberal (her political self-concept). The vocational self-concept refers to the subset of self-beliefs about vocationally relevant attributes.
Derailment refers to the involuntary loss of promotional opportunity due to declining managerial effectiveness over time. In general, managers derail because their skills and perspectives are seen as a poor fit for the challenges they face, either currently, in the near future, or with additional moves to more senior-level jobs. While some derailed managers are
Over the last decade, the enrollment of students with disabilities in postsecondary education has increased dramatically. In 1978, just 3 percent of all incoming, first-time, full-time college freshmen reported having a disability. By 2000, a full 9 percent of incoming full-time freshmen reported having at least one disability. According to the 1995 to 1996 National
Providing the necessary information to ensure sound, evidence-based public policy for those with disabilities has been more difficult than for other economically vulnerable populations. To do so, researchers need appropriate data: to identify the population with disabilities, to establish success measures for the public policies targeted on it, and to track outcomes of such policies.
Workplace diversity continues to be both an interest and a concern to organizations worldwide. Efforts to provide greater access to corporate careers for groups that have been historically discriminated against is not new. However, what is more modern is the examination of how inherent and subtle biases, as well as privileges, may facilitate the movement
The term downsizing represents the broad variety of ways in which organizational leaders reduce employee ranks to achieve business objectives. Downsizing occurs through voluntary programs, such as early retirement packages; involuntary dismissals, such as layoffs; and the displacement of employees through outsourcing. No matter which method is used, the underlying objective of a downsizing is
Homo ergaster (literally “work man”) is an extinct hominin that lived in Africa about 1.9 to 1.6 million years ago. The species was named by C. Groves and V. Mazak in 1975, based on the discovery of a mandible known as “KNM-ER 992.” This fossil for which the species is named was found at a
Homo habilis is an extinct hominin that lived in Africa between 2.3 and 1.6 million years ago. The type specimen, OH 7 (Olduvai Hominid #7), was discovered by Louis Leakey at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, in 1960. It consists of a mandible and two parietal (skull) bones that are 1.7 million years old. The species (literally
Age of Homo sapiens The Homo sapiens lineage may be as old as 500,000 years. Although the oldest fossil remains only date to about 200,000 years, there is growing evidence that the H. sapiens lineage may be much older. Assuming that H. neandertalensis is its own species (and evidence for this assumption grows), then the
Homosexuality generally refers to sexual and/or emotional attraction to members of the same sex. Homosexuality is considered to be a sexual orientation along with heterosexuality, or attraction to members of the opposite sex, and bisexuality, or the potential for attraction to members of both sexes. In addition to attraction, sexual orientation may also refer to
Hopi, which means the “Peaceful People,” have lived in the Black Mesa region of the Colorado Plateau since their emergence into this, the fourth world. Living in this world is therefore referred to as the “Fourth Way of Life” and is reflected in the fact that when Maa’saw offered groups of people ears of corn
For most of the 20th century, anthropologists were keen typologists, preferring to categorize and classify the diversity of social and cultural phenomena they encountered. The diverse ways in which people engaged in production to satisfy their subsistence needs fell within five broad categories. One of these adaptive strategies is known as horticulture. Horticultural production is
Francis Clark Howell, better known as Clark Howell, is one of the most influential and respected physical anthropologists in North America today. Howell pioneered an integrative multidisciplinary approach to the study of human origins that combines vertebrate paleontology, evolutionary biology, geology, ecology, and prehistoric archeology. This comprehensive Howellian approach is now the standard against which
Howling monkeys are a group of New World Monkeys (NWM) belonging to the subfamily Alouattinae and genus Alouatta. There are eight species of howling monkeys—the red-handed howler (Alouatta belzebul), black-and-gold howler (A. caraya), Coiba Island howler (A. coibensis), brown howler (A. fusca), mantled howler (A. palliata), black howler (A. pigra), red howler (A. seniculus), and
American physical anthropologist Ales Hrdlicka is most widely known for theories concerning Homo Neandertalensis and New World migrations. Born in Bohemia in 1869, Hrdlicka entered the United States in 1882. Similar to other immigrants, he held a nominal job as a cigar maker while attending night school. Encouraged to seek a profession in the medical
Huari represents one of the few civilizations that were actually lost from historic records only to be rediscovered by archaeologists centuries later. Since its rediscovery in the 1940s, it has become almost synonymous with the era known as the Middle Horizon (AD 550-900), though deep excavations at several large sites suggest the civilization has roots
Considered by many scholars to be a historically significant conceptual development in the study of social cognition, implicit personality theories are cognitive structures utilized during social perception and in social interaction. The knowledge contained in these structures specifies sets of personality traits perceived to be interrelated. Applied during social perception, implicit personality theories are key
The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion, developed by Richard Petty, John Cacioppo, and their collaborators, is an example of a “dual process” approach to persuasion (another example is Chaiken’s heuristic-systematic model, HSM). The ELM suggests that important variations in the nature of persuasion are a function of the likelihood that receivers will engage in
In the typical demonstration of dual coding, a list consisting of an equal number of pictures and words is presented to study participants. On encountering an item in the list, the study participant is asked to read the word or name the picture. Later, when the items are recalled, twice as many pictures than words
Discourse comprehension is the act of interpreting a written or spoken message by integrating the incoming information into the memory or knowledge structures of the interpreter. As such it involves social and pragmatic knowledge as well as grammatical and logical knowledge. Consider an example from Schank and Abelson (1977): (1) “John went into a restaurant.
As Phillips (2000) observes, the term constructivism is associated with numerous doctrines and positions in the social sciences, but in the communication discipline constructivism is most associated with a theory of individual differences in communication skills developed by Jesse Delia and his colleagues at the University of Illinois in the 1970s. Although constructivism originally focused
Human beings are uniquely able to understand sophisticated concepts through the use of language. Issues relating to comprehension encompass a wide variety of areas in linguistics, communication, and cognitive studies. Constructs regarding comprehension can be broadly divided into two theoretically diverse approaches, which diverge on the emphasis they place on cognition as an individual, self-contained
The term compliance gaining refers to interactions during which one participant attempts to convince a second to perform some desired behavior that the second otherwise might not perform. Seeking and resisting compliance are common within personal relationships: an adolescent asks her parents if she can borrow the family automobile; a husband ignores his wife’s hints
The Latin root of “communication” – communicare – means “to share” or “to be in relation with.” Through Indo-European etymological roots, it further relates to the words “common,” “commune,” and “community,” suggesting an act of “bringing together”. The notion of communication has been present and debated in the west from pre-Socratic times. The Hippocratic Corpus
Communication anxiety/avoidance is one of the most studied phenomena in the field of communication. Communication apprehension (CA) is defined as “the fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with others” (McCroskey 1984). CA is problematic when anxiety reaches levels that interfere with goal attainment. Inherently social, communication apprehension is emotionally based, although CA
Cognition refers to (1) the wide variety of mental entities we locate within the mind, including thoughts, meanings, ideas, attitudes, knowledge, beliefs, perceptions, intentions, memories, images, dreams, states of mind, consciousness and subconsciousness, and (2) the operations of the mind, such as association, search, comparison, attention, and inference. Cognition is thinking. Ancient philosophers speculated on
Career counseling competencies consist of the knowledge, skills, and personal attributes that career counselors need to deliver quality services to clients. Even in so-called developed countries, large portions of the population are not well served by existing approaches to delivering career development services. Articulating career development competencies that are cross-indexed to client services is a
An individual engages in career exploration as a way of gathering information about self and the environment, with a goal of fostering progress and career development. Although proactive career exploration is common when individuals undergo a career transition and when they are faced with the need to make an imminent career decision, exploration may also
The child care market was largely irrelevant to professional careers during the historical period when most professionals were White men with wives in the home performing unpaid work. Beginning in the 1960s, the large-scale entry of women into higher education and professional labor markets changed this situation. That change occurred in large measure because women
Churning the workforce is an approach to talent management that relies on use of the outside labor market to meet changing skill needs. Specifically, employers needing new skills, knowledge, and abilities, perhaps most often to meet changing demands from product markets, acquire them by hiring employees from the outside market. The employees they currently have
Vocational choice is a search for a life career that fits one’s concept of self, both socially and psychologically. According to circumscription and compromise theory, four developmental processes guide this person-job matching process during the first two decades of life: cognitive growth, age-related growth in cognitive ability; self-creation, increasingly self-directed development; circumscription, progressive elimination of
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed by President Lyndon B. Johnson in the wake of the assassination of President Kennedy and as the civil rights movement continued its struggle for social equality. Although a bill prohibiting discrimination in the workplace had been introduced in Congress every year since 1943, the filibuster and other
The Civil Rights Act of 1991 is compromise legislation passed after a heated two-year political struggle and ambitiously amended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (referred to as “Title VII”); the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990; Section 1981 of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 (referred to as “Section 1981”); the
There is an old adage, “Give people a fish and they eat for a day, but teach them how to fish and they eat for a lifetime.” This wise maxim succinctly captures the ultimate aim in using the cognitive information processing (CIP) approach to career counseling: to enable individuals to become skillful career problem solvers
Collective bargaining is an activity that takes place between workers and employers. It can be defined as the ongoing process by which workers and their employers negotiate to resolve disputes over workplace issues. These issues typically include compensation (wages and other pay, such as overtime, holiday pay, vacation pay, and benefits, which include health care
Compensation encompasses myriad schemes that organizations use for providing their employees money in return for their labor. When designing and implementing a compensation system, organizational decision makers must ask many questions and address many issues. How much should we pay our employees? Should pay be based on the job or on the person? Should employees
Thor Heyerdahl, noted explorer and author, was born in Larvik, Norway, on October 6,1914. After studying zoology and geography at Oslo University, he married and traveled to Polynesia. After a period of familiarization with the island way of life and culture, the Heyerdahls chose a primitive lifestyle on a remote Pacific island, Fatu Hiva, in
Hinduism is arguably one of the most difficult of the major world religious traditions to accurately define and explain in any concise manner, especially using Western models and modes of understanding. Unlike the Judeo-Christian approach to religion, in which a specific text, a unique prophet or set of prophets, and the teachings attributed to these
Historicism is a theory of discerning the past truth from the study of history with man at the pivot. It was applied by 18th-century philosophers of Enlightenment and gained momentum since then, with the insistence that history is knowledge. It is the implication of the knowledge of history in explaining, besides history, a vast range
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the retro-virus responsible for the clinical spectrum of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Once infected by the virus, an individual is said to be HIV positive. HIV then attacks and progressively destroys key elements of the immune system, rendering victims susceptible to a host of opportunistic infections and rare cancers.
Virtually all fields of science are afflicted to some extent by hoaxes. Anthropology is no different, with each of its subfields having been subjected to at least a measure of intellectual dishonesty and fakery. Though the motives behind anthropological hoaxes have varied, the element underlying their success has always been the same: an audience predisposed
Born April 5, 1588, in Westport, England, Thomas Hobbes claimed that his birth was premature due to his mother’s fear of the Spanish Armada. Son of a minister of the Church of England, he was able to receive an education at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, from which he graduated in February 1608. Hobbes was then recommended
E. Adamson Hoebel was an American anthropologist whose major contribution to anthropology and other social sciences was the development of the “trouble case method” for analyzing the legal systems of non-literate peoples. Prior to 1940, the legal systems of the world’s peoples were seldom studied by anthropologists, and when they were, it was a listing
One of the most important discoveries of recent times, related to our origins, is the verification of a close genetic affinity between human beings and chimpanzees. Such affinity is so significant (98.8%) that it is estimated that both phylogenetic lines that led to the two species had a common ancestor approximately 6 to 8 million
Hominoids are the superfamily to which apes and humans belong. Hominoids are distinguished from cercopithecoids (Old World monkeys), the catarrhine group to which they are most closely related, in having primitive nonbilophodont molars, larger brains, longer arms than legs (except in humans), a broader chest, a shorter and less flexible lower back, and no tail.
Homo erectus (literally “upright man”) is an extinct hominin that lived between 1.8 million and 50,000 years ago. The first fossil found of this species (the type specimen) was a skullcap discovered in 1891 by Eugène Dubois. However, the species was not named until 1894, after a femur (thigh bone) was discovered not far from