Teacher self-disclosure occurs when teachers intentionally or unintentionally reveal information about themselves to students (Nussbaum & Scott 1979), often concerning their education, experience, family, friends and colleagues, beliefs, opinions, leisure activities, and personal problems (Downs et al. 1988). Moreover, these early studies suggest that teacher self-disclosure is related in various ways to student learning and
Teacher socialization is a complex, communicative process by which individuals selectively acquire the values, attitudes, norms, knowledge, skills, and behaviors of the teaching profession and of the particular school or educational culture in which they seek to work. It is a widely held view that the effectiveness of teachers, and thus the quality of education
Socio-communicative style is a presentational communication trait. Teachers with a particular style should communicate in a consistent manner, demonstrating that style over time and in different situations. The constructs of teacher socio-communicative style (how a teacher would perceive himself or herself) and teacher socio-communicative orientation (how students would view the teacher) are based on earlier
Physical therapy assistants help to restore physical function in people with injury, birth defects, or disease. They assist physical therapists with a variety of techniques, such as exercise, massage, heat, and water therapy. Physical therapy assistants work directly under the supervision of physical therapists. They teach and help patients improve functional activities required in their
Plastics products manufacturing workers mold, cast, and assemble products made of plastics materials. The objects they make include dishes, signs, toys, insulation, appliance parts, automobile parts, combs, gears, bearings, and many others. Thermoplastics, plastics that soften with heat and harden when cooled, were discovered in France in 1828. In the United States in 1869, a
Political reporters gather and analyze information about current events in government and politics and broadcast their reports on radio and television stations. Newspapers and magazines also employ political reporters. For more information on careers in print journalism, see Political Columnists and Writers. Radio and television reporters, news analysts, and correspondents hold approximately 16,350 jobs in
Postal clerks are employees of the United States Postal Service (USPS). The equivalent employees at package delivery companies have different titles but perform many of the same duties; at Federal Express they are called service agents, at United Parcel Service, administrative assistants and account executives. Their job duties may be diversified, depending upon the size
Prepress workers handle the first stage in the printing process. This initial phase of production involves multiple steps, including creating pages from text and graphics and making printing plates. With the introduction of desktop publishing and other computer technology, the prepress process has changed dramatically over the past decade. Computerized processes have replaced many of
Printing press operators and printing press operator assistants prepare, operate, and maintain printing presses. Their principal duties include installing and adjusting printing plates, loading and feeding paper, mixing inks and controlling ink flow, and ensuring the quality of the final printed piece. There are approximately 191,000 printing press operators in the United States. They are
Psychologists teach, counsel, conduct research, or administer programs to understand people and help people understand themselves. Psychologists examine individual and group behavior through testing, experimenting, and studying personal histories. Psychologists normally hold doctorates in psychology. Unlike psychiatrists, they are not medical doctors and cannot prescribe medication. Approximately 179,000 psychologists are employed in the United States.
Quality assurance testers examine new or modified computer software applications to evaluate whether or not they perform as intended. Testers might also verify that computer-automated quality assurance programs function properly. Their work entails trying to crash computer programs by punching in certain characters very quickly, for example, or by clicking the mouse on the border
Range managers work to maintain and improve grazing lands on public and private property. They research, develop, and carry out methods to improve and increase the production of forage plants, livestock, and wildlife without damaging the environment; develop and carry out plans for water facilities, erosion control, and soil treatments; restore rangelands that have been
Receptionists—so named because they receive visitors in places of business—have the important job of giving a business’s clients and visitors a positive first impression. Also called information clerks, these front-line workers are the first communication sources who greet clients and visitors to an office, answer their questions, and direct them to the people they wish
David Emile Durkheim was a French sociologist and philosopher concerned with establishing the domain of sociology, that is, how sociology is different from other academic disciplines. He was also committed to establishing sociology as a science that could compare with the standing of the natural sciences. Scholars regard Durkheim as one of the founders of
The study of ecology and anthropology, here termed ecological anthropology, is at its most basic level the examination of the relationship between humans and the natural environments in which they live. Although the nature of how anthropologists approach this relationship has changed and varied considerably over the past century, ecological anthropology is best characterized as
From the inception of the discipline of anthropology, ethnographic monographs have dealt with the economies of the people under discussion as a matter of course. The evolutionists were fundamentally interested in levels of technology and environmental “adaptations,” and functionalists interpreted all social systems in terms of the satisfaction of basic human needs. Subsequently, anthropologists influenced
Human beings are curious by nature. In that way, we are all anthropologists in the sense that we possess the universal trait of “curiosity.” From the time that a child asks his mother, “Where did I come from?” human beings question why we were made, why we were born, and where we will go. We
Ancient Egyptian civilization lasted from approximately 3000 BC until the date of the last known hieroglyphic inscription in 395 AD. Though many cultures invaded and at times ruled Egypt, its character survived largely the same until the Roman Period, and many aspects of ancient Egyptian civilization remained through the Coptic Period. Egypt did not attain
Egyptology is defined as the study of Ancient Egypt from the Badarian, circa 4500 BCE, to the Muslim invasion of Egypt in AD 641. (Identified in Upper Egypt by Brunton and Caton Thompson in 1928, the Badarian is contemporary with Fayum A in Lower Egypt.) This brought the “Great Tradition” cultural practices that had coalesced
Human behavioral ecology (HBE) applies to principles of evolution by natural selection to explain behavioral and cultural diversity in human populations. It explores how features of social and physical environment constrain the suite of behaviors or “strategies” of individuals and applies the logic of optimization to make formal predictions about the conditions that favor or
Humans are the primate species with not only the longest life span (120 years) but also the greatest proportion of those years spent in social and biological maturity. The evolutionary legacy of aging also includes a powerful biological dimension of programmed senescence. Despite this, cross-cultural psychiatrist David Gutmann suggests elders exist not because of our
As novelist, philosopher, and humanist, Mircea Eliade advocated a unique perspective in his primary work as historian of religions, a field in which he was universally recognized as a brilliant and enthusiastic scholar. By means of his creative and controversial approach to the religious expression of humankind, he attempted to bridge the gap between the
From the Greek evxoZ + yapco ( “in” + “to marry”), endogamy is the marital rule according to which the spouses are selected from within the same social group (kindred, religious, ethnic, etc.). It is the opposite of exogamy. Through endogamy, social groups aim to preserve their constitutive elements (for example, power, wealth, religion, language)
Women’s empowerment is a central concern of the women’s movement. It refers to the general process through which women gain knowledge about the structures that oppress them, and seek to alter the power imbalances in society. Bookman and Morgen (1988: 4) define empowerment broadly as the ‘‘process aimed at consolidating, maintaining, or changing the nature
Carework refers, simply, to the work of caring for others, including unpaid care for family members and friends, as well as paid care for others. Caring work includes taking care of children, the elderly, the sick, and the disabled, as well as doing domestic work such as cleaning and cooking. As reproductive labor, carework is
Since the 1960s, growing proportions of children worldwide have been experiencing their parents’ separation at an increasingly early age. Parental separation entails a series of transitions and family reorganizations, including changes in parenting arrangements, residence, family relationships, and standard of living, that influence children’s development and adjustment over time. All pose risks for children. When
Childcare is a term which typically is applied to adults taking responsibility for younger children and looking after them on a daily basis in the private sphere of families and the home. In societies where women and men are employed outside the home, their under school age children may be cared for by kin or
The past few decades have brought dramatic changes in the residential arrangements of romantically involved unmarried adults. Indeed, as sexual activity has become uncoupled from marriage, growing numbers of young couples have begun sharing a home and a bed without the legal sanction of marriage. Cohabitation, as this type of living arrangement is commonly known
Social networks, or the kin, friends, and other close associates of primary partners (e.g., spouses), can have important influences on the internal character of a marriage or family. Elizabeth Bott (1971) was among the first to recognize this connection in a study conducted in the early 1950s that involved extensive inter views with 20 London
Who Marries Whom? The question ‘‘Who marries whom?’’ refers to patterns of partner choice. The tendency to marry (or enter a long term relationship such as cohabitation) a person who belongs to the same social group or who is similar with regard to certain characteristics is also known as homo gamy. Since Weber argued that
Who is Friends with Whom? The degree to which people from different social strands have relations with each other indicates social cohesion. Therefore, the question of who is friends with whom is nontrivial. Compared to marriage, friendship is a non-institutionalized relationship: there is no formal start of a friendship and one can break off or
Living apart together (LAT) broadly refers to couples, heterosexual or homosexual, who have an ongoing self-defined couple relationship without cohabiting. Some couples keep separate residences, even though they both live within the same locale. Levin (2004) has suggested that the dual residence aspect of LAT couples distinguishes them from a commuter marriage where there is
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, economic production was organized around the home, and households were relatively self-sufficient. Households were multifunctional, acting, among other things, as eating establishment, educational institution, factory, and infirmary. Everyone belonging to the household, including family members, servants, and apprentices, did their part in the household’s productive labor. The word ‘‘housework,’’ first
With the increasing migration of communication and information provision to the web, new research methods are emerging to cope with the challenge of understanding the implications of this change. Link analysis is the study of hyperlinks between websites in order to discover (1) why they were created and what they are used for, (2) online
Log-file analysis uses the records stored in the transaction logs of information retrieval systems, web search engines, and websites to offer valuable understanding of the interactions between these systems and people. This understanding informs system design, interface development, and information architecture. Log files (or transaction logs) are an unobtrusive and relatively easily method of recording
Within a decade of its commercialization, mobile communication is now often used more than landline telephony. In the early 1990s, only the privileged few used mobile communication, but by the mid-2000s, approximately one-third of the world’s population had a mobile telephone. This period of seemingly effortless adoption has been accompanied by changes in our sense
Network forms of organizations are characterized by reciprocal, lateral communication ties. They are often contrasted with hierarchies, which are vertically organized, and markets, which exhibit an atomistic structure of buyers and sellers. Powell (1990) and Nohria (1992) provide classic statements of the comparisons. Networked organizations are often viewed as more flexible and “intelligent” than hierarchies
Open access (OA) refers to a publishing practice in which users are granted rights of free access to digital content. Anyone, regardless of their institutional or personal status, can read and download OA materials without charge. OA is an invention of the digital era and only feasible because of the Internet and the world wide
Open source software (OSS) refers to software that can be freely used and modified. It is developed collaboratively over the Internet by teams of globally distributed and predominantly volunteer programmers . The OSS movement is a continuation of a long tradition of sharing and cooperation that started in the early days of the Internet. OSS
The emergence of peer-to-peer (P2P) networking shows that technological determinism can be turned on its head: rather than socio-economic systems being determined by technological developments, sometimes technology can be determined by its users. Although in general the coupling goes both ways, P2P networking culminates the progression in computer architectures from mainframes through minicomputers, workstations, PCs
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) includes electronic mail, group discussion systems, and real-time chat systems through which people send messages to others, either to a defined individual or set of recipients, or to a messaging space where many people may read and reply to others’ messages. Much CMC is used for professional work and to facilitate commerce;
The term “online media” primarily refers to technical communication media where digital content is transmitted from any kind of server to distant receivers via the Internet (TCP/IP [transmission control protocol/Internet protocol]) or other digital networks, e.g., mobile services, and presented on a computer or a comparable terminal device (notebook, PDA [personal digital assistant], or mobile
Personal publishing by an individual or small group – generally not for profit and generally not aimed at a mass audience or utilizing mainstream publishers – has occurred for centuries. In its early years it took the form of, e.g., small-scale pamphleteering, the circulation of diaries within faith-based or friendship communities, or the publication of
Defined as a communication process involving a seasoned professional who counsels, guides, and tutors a protégé (Waldeck et al. 1997), mentoring within the instructional context refers to a teacher–student relationship. In this context, mentoring consists of a communication relationship between teachers and students, where the teacher provides academic, career, and social support to the student.
Pedagogy is commonly defined as the principles and methods of instruction. Instructional pedagogy, at all levels, is mediated through the communication process. Successful pedagogy is thus dependent on successful communication among teachers and students. However, all teachers do not effectively use communication to support instruction. A teacher’s thorough knowledge of content does not mean that
Reticence is a communication problem with cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions and is due to the belief that one is better off remaining silent than risking appearing foolish (Keaten & Kelly 2000). Reticent individuals tend to avoid communication in social and public contexts, particularly novel situations that have the potential for negative evaluation. The publication
Because a teacher is a manager of a communication environment, investigation into the teaching process analyzes the complexity of the communication situation and the specifics of student–teacher communication. The specificity of a distinct “scholarship of teaching,” suggested by Ernest Boyer (1990), argues that studying those topics emanating from the teaching process is worthy of scholarly
Sesame Street is an educational children’s television series for preschoolers that teaches a broad range of curricula, from letter and numbers to socio-emotional and coping skills. The series is the longest running US children’s television show, having first aired in 1969, and has won over 100 Emmys, more than any other television program. It is
Speech anxiety, also known as stage fright, refers to the feeling of anxiousness or fear associated with delivering a speech. The symptoms of speech anxiety typically involve physiological arousal (e.g., elevated heart rate), negative thoughts (e.g., being negatively evaluated), and behavioral disruptions (e.g., verbal disfluency; Ayres & Hopf 1993). According to Ayres et al. (in
Stage fright is the anxiety and nervousness people experience when delivering oral presentations. In the field of communication, stage fright has also been studied under a variety of rubrics including public speaking anxiety, reticence, and audience anxiety. It is one of the oldest topics that communication scholars have studied empirically (Clevenger 1959), perhaps because it
McCroskey and Wheeless, the first to introduce the concept of “affinity” in the communication literature, defined it as “a positive attitude toward another person” (1976, 231). Bell and Daly expanded research in the area of affinity seeking in interpersonal communication. They defined “affinity seeking” as “the active social communicative process by which individuals attempt to
Assertiveness, one of the three primary dimensions studied under the rubric of teacher socio-communicative style (the others are responsiveness and versatility), refers to an ability to use effective and appropriate communication in making requests and defending one’s position. It involves a willingness to speak up for one’s own beliefs without impinging on the rights of
Teacher clarity is the extent to which the meaning stimulated in students’ minds by an instructor accurately matches the meaning an instructor intends to convey. In their article on teacher behaviors, Rosenshine and Furst (1971) identified teacher clarity as the most important aspect of teaching that researchers should investigate. Since that article, research programs originating
Packaging engineers design, develop, and specify containers for all types of goods, such as food, clothing, medicine, housewares, toys, electronics, appliances, and computers. In creating these containers, some of the packaging engineer’s activities include product and cost analysis, management of packaging personnel, development and operation of packaging filling lines, and negotiations with customers or sales
Pathologists are physicians who analyze tissue specimens to identify abnormalities and diagnose diseases. Approximately 13,700 pathologists are employed in the United States. Pathologist Career History During the late Middle Ages, the earliest known autopsies were performed to determine cause of death in humans. As these autopsies were documented, much information about human anatomy was gathered
When pet owners are on vacation or working long hours, they hire pet sitters to come to their homes and visit their animals. During short, daily visits, pet sitters feed the animals, play with them, clean up after them, give them medications when needed, and let them in and out of the house for exercise.
Petroleum engineers apply the principles of geology, physics, and the engineering sciences to the recovery, development, and processing of petroleum. As soon as an exploration team has located an area that could contain oil or gas, petroleum engineers begin their work, which includes determining the best location for drilling new wells, as well as the
Pharmacologists play an important role in medicine and in science by studying the effects of drugs, chemicals, and other substances on humans, animals, and plants. These highly educated scientists conduct research on living tissues and organs to determine how drugs and other chemicals act at the cellular level. Their results help to discover how drugs
Phlebotomy technicians, sometimes called phlebotomists, draw blood from patients or donors in hospitals, blood banks, clinics, physicians’ offices, or other facilities. They assemble equipment, verify patient identification numbers, and withdraw blood either by puncturing a person’s finger, or by extracting blood from a vein or artery with a needle syringe. They label, transport, and store
Photo editors are responsible for the look of final photographs to be published in a book or periodical or that are posted on the Internet. They make photo assignments, judge and alter pictures to meet assignment needs, and make sure all deadlines are met. They work for publishers, advertising agencies, photo stock agencies, greeting card
Photographic equipment technicians, sometimes called camera technicians, maintain, test, disassemble, and repair cameras and other equipment used to take still and motion pictures. They are responsible for keeping the equipment in working order. Photographic equipment technicians use a variety of hand tools (such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wire cutters) for maintenance and repair of the
Physical education (PE) teachers instruct students in kindergarten through grade 12 about physical fitness and health. They may organize physical education programs for an entire school or just a few classes. PE teachers make up only a small percentage of the approximately 3.8 million teachers employed in the United States. In the United States, organized
Physical therapists, formerly called physiotherapists, are health care specialists who restore mobility, alleviate pain and suffering, and work to prevent permanent disability for their patients. They test and measure the functions of the musculoskeletal, neurological, pulmonary, and cardiovascular systems and treat problems in these systems caused by illness, injury, or birth defect. Physical therapists provide
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a complex molecule that expresses, stores, and replicates all of the genetic information that is contained in eukaryotic cells. This genetic information is responsible for all the characteristics expressed in a particular species (e.g., color, size, and gender). In addition to physical characteristics, information pertaining to behavior and intelligence is also
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) testing is a scientific method used to distinguish among living entities through the variations between strands of DNA. It is hard to believe that the use of DNA testing first entered the forensic world just 25 years ago. From the criminal cases shown by the media to the new popular television series
Emics is a term used by some cultural anthropologists to denote descriptions and explanations of human beliefs and behaviors in terms relevant to the native practitioners of the culture in question. The linguist Kenneth Pike coined the term emics from the linguistic term phonemics, the study of the system of sound contrasts used by speakers
British social anthropologist Mary Douglas developed theories about human behavior and culture that have been influential in many disciplines, including anthropology, psychology, political science, religious studies, economics, literature, biblical criticism, risk analysis, and folklore. Douglas, a symbolic anthropologist, focuses on how people understand the world in which they live and how this understanding influences their
Empedocles was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher and a poet. He was born circa 495 BC in the Sicilian city of Acragas (recently Agrigento) and died, according to a famous but unproven story, by throwing himself into the active volcano Mount Etna in Sicily circa 435 BC, thus intending to demonstrate his personal immortality. Empedocles is
Recombinant DNA, also written as rDNA, is the combining of genes from two or more organisms. The procedure is to construct a DNA molecule in vitro and then insert it into a host cell or organism. The product of the procedure usually is defined as being genetically engineered, although the two terms genetically modified or
Enculturation is the process by which children are socialized to the standard modes of thinking, feeling, and behaving considered appropriate for an adult in a given society. Because language is the primary means of communication, it is one of most important components of the enculturation process, and because cultural information is encoded in language, children
Dowry is a custom practiced mostly by intensive agriculturalists with significant inequalities in wealth. It is a form of marital exchange occurring in 5% of the societies studied by anthropologists in Europe, Southern Asia, and the Middle East, the most well-known being the Indian Hindus. Generally speaking, it involves the transfer of property, money, or
Dryopithecus is one of 40 genera representing up to 100 species of extinct apes that lived during the Miocene (22.5 to 5.5 million years ago). The fossils of Dryopithecus have been found in the region ranging from Spain to the Republic of Georgia. Dryopithecus fontani was the first fossil great ape discovered. It was discovered
A Dutch anatomist and geologist, Eugene Dubois was known for his discovery of Pithecanthropus erectus. Born in the Netherlands in 1858, Dubois cultivated his naturalism with interest in the natural sciences. With support from his family, he studied medicine at Amsterdam University, whereby he received his doctorate in 1884. After graduating, Dubois was appointed as
Gender, work, and family is the study of the intersection of work and family, with a focus on how those intersections vary by gender. This research is motivated in large part by the tremendous growth in labor force participation among women in their childbearing years during the second half of the twentieth century. This influx
What do we mean when we say that enterprise or organization is gendered? As Acker (2003) argues, ‘‘to say that an organization, or any other analytic unit, is gendered means that advantage and disadvantage, exploitation and control, action and emotion, meaning and identity, are patterned through and in terms of a distinction between male and
Understanding organizational practices and processes is central to explaining gender inequality. While women remain clustered in secondary labor markets marked by lower wages, uncertainty, short career ladders, and few if any benefits, most men find employment in primary labor markets characterized by greater economic rewards. Occupational and job segregation continue to be an enduring feature
Developed in the 1980s (Carrigan et al. 1985) to provide a relational and socially constructed conception of men and masculinities, the term hegemonic masculinity describes the hierarchical interaction between multiple masculinities and explains how some men make it appear normal and necessary that they dominate most women and other men (Connell 1987). Hegemonic masculinity describes
The term matrix of domination is associated with the feminist thought of Patricia Hill Collins, who came to prominence in the academic movement that arose from women’s activism in the 1960s and 1970s. Her project locates lived experiences of oppression within the social contexts that produce those experiences. Collins’s term refers to the particular configurations
Patriarchy is most commonly understood as a form of social organization in which cultural and institutional beliefs and patterns accept, support, and reproduce the domination of women and younger men by older or more powerful men. Literally the ”rule of the fathers,” today sociologists view as patriarchal any system that contributes to the social, cultural
Racialized gender is a sociological concept that refers to the critical analysis of the simultaneous effects of race and gender processes on individuals, families, and communities. This concept recognizes that women do not negotiate race and gender similarly. For instance, white women’s oppression has been linked with their privilege as white people, but they have
The publication of Michel Foucault’s first volume of the The History of Sexuality thoroughly transformed theoretical thinking around sexuality. A range of Foucault’s longstanding concerns around power, knowledge, discourse, truth, and subjectivity culminate in this text about the genealogy of sexuality in Christian western societies. With this book, Foucault attempted to write the history of
Twenty years ago sociology would not have even considered transgender, transvestism, and transsexualism. The medicalization and pathologizing of these phenomena under such categorizations as transvestism, transsexualism, gender dysphoria, and intersex ensured that cross-dressing and sex-changing were considered, in the main, to be the domain of medicine and psychology. The small number of sociological studies relating
In 1983, Alice Walker contrasted Afrocentrism, black feminism, and white feminism using the term womanist to render a critique of possibilities for women and men who felt ostracized by the mainstream women’s movement in the United States. Walker’s much cited phrase, ‘‘Womanist is to feminist as purple is to lavender,’’ reflects this comparison. Walker derived
E-government may be defined as the use by government of information and communication technologies, internally and to interact with citizens, firms, nongovernmental organizations, and other governments. E-government in practice, therefore, consists of both complex networks of information systems within government organizations and a huge range of websites with which citizens can communicate, interact, and transact.
The simplest definition of hacktivism is that it represents the conjunction of technologically knowledgeable hacking techniques with the values and communicational strategies of political activism. Whilst hacking involves the imaginative and unorthodox use of computers and their systems, hacktivism is the application of those techniques in the pursuit of political agendas frequently associated with new
Every computational device must allow for some form of interaction with its user. Human–computer interaction is the discipline that studies how people interact with computational devices and the implications that the design of the human–machine interface has for this interaction. The discipline also investigates wider communal and social implications associated with user interface design and
The commercial information and communication technology (ICT) industry accounts for a large fraction of economic activity. It has spread to include an extraordinary range of economic undertakings. What drives economic change in this market? A variety of market-driven incentives play a salient role. Technology Push The invention of the transistor did not lead in a
New information and communication technologies (ICTs) pose significant challenges for their users. They require the rapid development and continual updating of diverse skills, competences, and knowledge, from the most familiar to the brand new, and from the most basic to the highly sophisticated. In academic research, these skills and knowledge requirements are increasingly brought together
Information overload is a term first used in the early 1960s to indicate limits to human information handling capacity (Meier 1962) and later by Toffler (1970) as one dimension of “future shock,” by which he broadly meant too much change in too short a time. Computer communications and the Internet have contributed to the realization
The designation “information society” presupposes that information plays a defining role in the way we live today. For many commentators it is because information is more pervasive than hitherto that it is appropriate to characterize the present as self-evidently an information society. There is obviously more media output, more education available, more information and communications
Internet technology has developed in a rapid series of leaps to become one of the most fundamental communications infrastructures in modern society. When referring to the Internet as a communication infrastructure it is important to remember that the Internet is in reality a technological base upon which a multitude of software applications rely in order
Language and (or “on”) the Internet refers to human language (or language intended to be human-like, such as the linguistic output of artificial intelligence agents) produced and displayed through computer-mediated communication (CMC) systems that are mostly text based and mostly reciprocally interactive, such as email, listserv lists, newsgroups, chat, instant messaging, text messaging via mobile
Internet ratings systems, such as those provided by Nielsen//NetRatings or comScore Media Metrix, measure and rank the popularity of different websites and are used extensively in setting online advertising rates. The three typical online metrics are unique visitors, page views, and reach. In theory, these are simple measures: unique visitors measures the number of visitors
Communication apprehension (CA) intervention techniques are systematic, empirically grounded methods employed in a variety of settings to reduce communication-related anxiety, most commonly in public speaking contexts, where many speakers experience stage fright. Communication scholars have developed, adapted, and tested a variety of effective methods to treat speech anxiety due to its pervasive nature and deleterious
Because the ability to communicate is considered a major – perhaps even the primary – defining characteristic of humanity, people assume that, throughout human history, elders have taught the young this essential survival skill. Despite agreement on the importance of learning to communicate, there is no consensus about the particular goals of communication education or
Communication instructors use two broad categories of display programs in their classrooms. The first category is whiteboard technology. When delivering a lecture, instructors make notes on the whiteboard using a special stylus. The text is digitized, so the whiteboard subsequently becomes the display program. Instructors can email these digitized notes to their students or post
Software programs and computer systems for organizing courses continue to grow in popularity and can be divided into two categories. The first category includes “standalone” computer hardware and software that is obtained by an institution and used onsite to deliver course-related content (intranet). The second category is a server environment capable of delivering content to
Questions and discussion about the most appropriate goals for and organization of educational experiences in communication drive the area of curriculum studies. Curriculum studies are projects that examine the content, structure, and organization of communication curricula. These projects have focused on each level of educational endeavor from the elementary school classroom to the graduate seminar
Distance education refers to teaching and learning that occurs when students and teachers are in different physical and/or geographic locations. Although many people believe that distance education is a recent development made possible by the Internet, it actually began in the late 1800s. Distance education has its roots in correspondence courses, which began around 1870.
The idea of using mass media for educational purposes is by no means a new one. Books, songs, games: all of these are forms of media that have served as effective educational tools for centuries. In the case of electronic media, however, many discussions of the media’s impact on children focus only on negative effects
Educational media content refers to mediated messages designed to teach or provide opportunities for learning. The nature of mediated education varies greatly, ranging from formal curriculum-based message systems designed for classroom consumption to informal or pro-social media messages with the potential for producing incidental learning or pro-social change. Brief History of Educational Media Content Education
The term “instructional television” (ITV) is multidimensional, with definitions varying widely, depending on context, time period examined, and other factors. The term is frequently related or used interchangeably with other terms on this website, including Classroom Instructional Technology, Distance Education, and Educational Media, among others. At the most basic level, ITV refers to the use
The study of learning has been undertaken since the beginning of the twentieth century and has been heavily influenced by psychology. Although multiple definitions exist, learning has been generally defined as a persistent change in behavior or performance as a result of some stimulus. This definition encompasses both behavioral and cognitive aspects of learning. Behaviorism
Nuclear medicine technologists prepare and administer chemicals known as radiopharmaceuticals (radioactive drugs) used in the diagnosis and treatment of certain diseases. These drugs are administered to a patient and absorbed by specific locations in the patient’s body, thus allowing technologists to use diagnostic equipment to image and analyze their concentration in certain tissues or organs.
Licensed nuclear reactor operators work in nuclear power plant control rooms, where they monitor instruments that record the performance of every pump, compressor, and other treatment system in the reactor unit. Nuclear power plants must have operators on duty at all times. In addition to monitoring the instruments in the control room, the nuclear reactor
Numerical control tool programmers, also called computer numerical control tool programmers, develop programs that enable machine tools to produce parts automatically. These precisely made parts are used in automobiles, airplanes, industrial machinery, and other durable goods. There are approximately 143,000 numerical control programmers and operators in the United States. One of the earliest attempts to
Nursing home administrators are responsible for the management of nursing homes. Their duties are wide ranging, covering everything from keeping track of financial accounts to making sure the facility is up to code to greeting residents at social events. In addition, administrators supervise managers throughout the residence. Nursing home managers head different departments of a
Obstetricians/gynecologists, often abbreviated to OB-GYNs, are physicians who are trained to provide medical and surgical care for disorders that affect the female reproductive system, to deliver babies, and to provide care for the unborn fetus and the newborn. There are approximately 30,000 physicians who specialize in obstetrics/gynecology in the United States. Obstetrics and gynecology were
Oceanographers obtain information about the ocean through observations, surveys, and experiments. They study the biological, physical, and chemical composition of the ocean and the geological structure of the seabed. They also analyze phenomena involving the water itself, the atmosphere above it, the land beneath it, and the coastal borders. They study acoustical properties of water
Oncologists are physicians who study, diagnose, and treat the tumors caused by cancer. When an individual is diagnosed with cancer, an oncologist takes charge of the patient’s overall care and treatment through all phases of the disease. There are three primary areas within clinical oncology: medical oncology, surgical oncology, and radiation oncology. Oncologist Career History
Orth means “straight” and odont means “tooth.” Orthodontists are dental specialists who diagnose problems with teeth, jaws, and lower facial development and treat malpositioned and misaligned teeth and jaws. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, more than 10,000 orthodontists work in the United States. Orthodontist Career History Archeologists have found evidence that metal bands
Orthotic technicians and prosthetic technicians (also known as medical appliance technicians) make, fit, repair, and maintain orthotic and prosthetic devices according to specifications and under the guidance of orthotists and prosthetists. Orthotic devices, sometimes also referred to as orthopedic appliances, are braces used to support weak or ineffective joints or muscles or to correct physical
Orthotists design and make braces, shoe inserts, and other corrective devices to support the spine or limbs weakened by illness or injury. Prosthetists design, make, and fit artificial limbs for persons missing an arm, leg, or other body part as a result of injury or illness. There are approximately 6,000 orthotists and prosthetists currently employed
Sociologists define deviant behavior as behavior that violates social norms. Norms are expectations or prescriptions that guide people into actions that produce conformity. Norms make social life possible because they make behavior predictable. While members of a society do not have to agree on all the norms of a society, conformity to norms rests upon
It’s not often that a boy from a small town in Texas gets to become a renowned Harvard professor, but Irven Devore is one who was able to do this. His preparation for the academic world began at the University of Texas where he received his BA degree in philosophy and anthropology. He furthered his
John Dewey was an American philosopher, educator, psychologist, public intellectual, social critic, and political activist. He was a major figure in American intellectual history and one of the great minds, deserving, according to his biographer G. Dykhuizen, the title of the “spokesman of humanity.” Born in Burlington, Vermont (1859), he died in New York City
As a social scientist, Jared Diamond is interested in how human societies have developed and fared over the millennia, and he has continually striven to understand the broad patterns of human behavior across the globe. For him, answering questions about how and why different human societies evolved over time under various environmental and social conditions
The 20th century certainly had its share of political problems. Some have come, some have gone, and some are still with us in a new century. Dictatorships have been a big problem for a number of reasons, including their effects on a people, a society, a country, and the international sphere. The 20th century saw
Focusing on the notion that similarities among cultures resulted from components spreading from one culture to another, diffusionism is often seen as a reaction to the paradigm of classic unilinear evolutionism, which traced cultural development to the ability of cultures to innovate independently. The major names in the early years of diffusionism worked in the
Contemplating “what if” questions about the extinction of nonavian dinosaurs has long been a pastime of scientists and the general public alike. If the dinosaurs hadn’t died out, how would they have evolved, and could they have developed sentience? It is just those questions that paleontologist Dale Russell and model maker/taxidermist Ron Séguin attempted to
The trajectory of the word “disease” in anthropology from the 20th century through to the present reflects as much about the constitution of the discipline as it does the discipline’s transformation in focus and paradigms. Following World War II, anthropology began to move away from its conventional objects, and the resultant encounters with non-Western medical
Dispute processes, those that initiate disputes and those that operate to resolve them, are cultural processes. These must be analyzed and understood within the social and cultural context of a community rather than as a matter of individuals’ rights and wrongs according to a logical political system of standardized jurisprudence. The anthropological study of dispute
Determinism, from the Latin determino or define, is a basic philosophic theory about general interdependence and interconditionality of phenomena and processes. The idea was pronounced for the first time in ancient natural philosophy, in particular, in notions about primary origins and elements. Later, it was developed by Persian poet Omar Khayyam, Italian naturalist G. Bruno
Missing from traditional and most contemporary discussions of deviance and crime is the notion of gender. A rather accessible definition of gender can be found in most introductory sociology textbooks. For the purposes of this entry, gender is defined as the social positions, attitudes, traits, and behaviors that a society assigns to females and males
Social scientists and educational researchers paid relatively little attention to issues of gender and education until the 1970s, when questions emerged concerning equity in girls’ and women’s access to education across the world. Researchers documented a link between increasing rates of female education in developing countries and a subsequent decline in fertility rates (e.g., Boserup
The subject of gender and friendship links two fields of sociological scholarship. Gender was rarely a salient theme in pioneering studies of friendship, communities, and social networks that emerged in anthropology and sociology in the 1960s. By the 1980s, though, burgeoning gender scholarship in the social sciences ignited interest in gender and friendship. For the
Although life expectancy at birth of women in western societies is significantly longer than that of men (e.g., 80 versus 74 years in the United States), women experience more sickness and non-fatal health problems than men (e.g., higher morbidity). Specific biological and behavioral explanations for these gender differences are largely unknown. It remains unclear whether
Social movements are shaped by gender systems and they also are a source of social change in gender. Some social movements directly attempt to change gender relations; these movements, particularly women’s movements, have been the focus of considerable scholarship. Increasingly, scholars also recognize the gendered nature of other social movements and the impact of systemic
Feminist thinkers have long focused on the body as an expression of power and a site of social control. As early as 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft proclaimed that ‘‘genteel women are slaves to their bodies’’ and that ‘‘beauty is woman’s scepter’’ (Wollstonecraft 1988). Sixty years later, Sojourner Truth drew attention to how bodies are not only
Gender bias is behavior that shows favoritism toward one gender over another. Most often, gender bias is the act of favoring men and/or boys over women and/or girls. However, this is not always the case. In order to define gender bias completely, we first must make a distinction between the terms gender and sex. When
World systems theorists were among the first to use the concept of an international division of labor by illustrating how the production of goods and services for ‘‘core’’ or more developed countries relied on the material resources of ‘‘peripheral’’ or developing nations (Wallerstein 1974). Their work describes the changing political and economic relationships among nations
Gender ideology and gender role ideology refer to attitudes regarding the appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities of women and men in society. The concept can reflect these attitudes generally or in a specific domain, such as an economic, familial, legal, political, and/or social domain. Most gender ideology constructs are unidimensional and range from traditional, conservative
Gender mainstreaming is a strategy for achieving gender equality. The approach seeks to reorganize and restructure policies, institutions, and social programs by taking women’s and men’s perspectives, experiences, and needs into consideration. Gender mainstreaming does not replace, but supplements, specific targeted interventions to address gender inequality such as affirmative action. Gender mainstreaming was first introduced
Communication infrastructure refers to the backbone of the communications system upon which various broadcasting and telecommunication services are operated. This can be built from copper cable, fiber, or wireless technologies utilizing the radio frequency spectrum, such as microwave and satellite. The infrastructure is the core component that connects upstream production, such as voice, data and
Communication technologies have been seen both as instrumental and as destructive to democratic processes. The advent of the print media is intrinsically linked with the struggle for civil liberties and the construction of contemporary nations. At the same time their destructive capacities became equally clear when, for instance, at the end of the nineteenth century
Communication technology standards are technical specifications that enable technological components from different suppliers to work together within a given communication system. Some standards refer to the physical interfaces between network and terminal equipment. Others refer to logical elements expressed in algorithms and embodied in software. In digital systems, many standards involve both physical and logical
Crime and communications are perennial and pervasive features of society, while equally subject to dramatic change. They have a complex and evolving relationship, covering both the communications function or service and its realization through communication technology. Attempts to control crime involve both conventional law enforcement/criminal justice and broader, more “scientific” approaches to prevention. Crime is
The term “cyborg” was coined in 1960 by Manfred Clynes and Nathan Kline as a portmanteau of Norbert Wiener’s (1965) “cybernetics” with “organism.” A cybernetic organism (cyborg) is a biological creature – generally a human being – whose functioning has been enhanced through integration of mechanical, electrical, computational, or otherwise artificial components. Many concepts now
“The digital divide” terminology is often used in policy discourse to refer simply to access to information and communication technologies (ICTs). It is a misnomer in at least two ways. First, it suggests that there is something new and different about the particular information and communication inequalities that surround digital technologies, whereas it is just
From the 1980s onward, media technologies have gone through a phase of digitization. CDs and digital music media replaced records and tapes in the 1980s and 1990s, and movies are increasingly being produced and distributed digitally. Newspaper production has become computer based and the news is distributed not only on paper, but also digitally on
The domain name system (DNS) was developed mainly by Paul Mockapetris and John Postel in the early 1980s. The main specifications are laid down in RFCs, or requests for comment, managed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). These are the accepted technical standards for the Internet; key ones are RFC 1034, RFC 1035, and
The domestication of technology is an approach within the area of media appropriation studies. It describes the process of media (technology) adoption in everyday life, and especially within households. It outlines several dimensions of this dynamic adoption process in the context of the household as a moral economy and through the concept of the double
Throughout history, innovations in communication technology have been associated with important developments in the manner in which people and organizations engage in economic exchanges of goods and services (Beniger 1986). In the past several decades, communication technology researchers have examined the social and economic implications of the use of computer networks as a medium for
The news is like lifeblood to democratic societies. The information provided daily through the major mass media television, radio, newspapers, and increasingly the Internet – keeps citizens up to date with the latest political, economic, and social developments, world events, natural and man-made disasters, lives of famous public figures, scientific breakthroughs, and sports and weather.
“Parental mediation” refers to the interactions that parents have with children about their media use. The majority of the research has focused on interactions involving children’s television viewing. Most scholars believe that parental mediation is comprised of three dimensions. The first dimension refers to parent–child communication about television. This dimension has been given numerous labels
The idea that an individual’s personality is “inherently intertwined” with how they communicate has intrigued scholars since the late 1920s (Daly 2002). Indeed, many have observed that through our social interactions we drop clues about the essence of our personality and, in turn, learn about others. Everyday parlance is, in fact, filled with terms and
Throughout the years, intense legal, political, and academic discussions have centered upon the use of pornography and its implications. Currently, these discussions have been revived because the Internet provides not only adults but also adolescents and children with free and anonymous access to pornography. The easy availability of pornographic material for all age groups has
Many children today spend more time consuming media than they spend attending school, or in any other activity except for sleeping. By “media” we mean any form of mass communication such as television, Internet, video and computer games, comic books, and radio. Violence is a dominant theme in most forms of media. For example, content
Classroom instructional technology (CIT) includes the pedagogical tools and methods that allow educators to communicate instructional messages that achieve instructional goals and facilitate learning outcomes at all educational levels in classrooms around the world. Over the past three decades, researchers have studied both the challenges and the opportunities associated with the potential of CIT to
Classroom management refers to teacher behaviors which “produce high levels of student involvement in classroom activities, minimal amounts of student behaviors that interfere with the teacher’s or students’ work, and efficient use of instructional time” (Emmer & Evertson 1981, 342). Studies continually reveal a significant relationship between time spent on the subject content and student
Social influence is inherent in the process of classroom instruction. Interpersonal power, as social influence, is a relational phenomenon and is defined “as an individual’s potential to have an effect on another person’s or group of persons’ behavior” (Richmond et al. 1980, 38). It is a teacher’s job to communicate and to have an effect
One important aspect of student–teacher classroom interaction involves the process of asking and answering questions. The proficient use of questioning in the classroom is often recognized as a significant tool for managing classroom discourse and motivating student participation in the learning process. Many of the published studies in this area pragmatically advise teachers about the
Student–teacher interaction, both in and out of the classroom, is influenced strongly by the teaching perspective embraced by the teacher. Within the instructional communication discipline, teaching can be viewed from two perspectives: the rhetorical perspective and the relational perspective (Mottet & Beebe 2006). Teachers whose student–teacher interaction is governed by the rhetorical perspective communicate with
Microelectronics technicians work in research laboratories assisting the engineering staff to develop and construct prototype and custom-designed microchips. Microchips, often called simply chips, are tiny but extremely complex electronic devices that control the operations of many kinds of communications equipment, consumer products, industrial controls, aerospace guidance systems, and medical electronics. The process of manufacturing chips
Military pilots fly various types of specialized aircraft to transport troops and equipment and to execute combat missions. Military aircraft make up of one of the world’s largest fleets of specialized airplanes. The U.S. Armed Forces are composed of five separate military services: the army, air force, marines, navy, and coast guard (which is now
The U.S. Armed Forces are composed of five separate military services: the army, navy, air force, marines, and coast guard. These branches organize, train, and equip the nation’s lands, sea, and air services to support the national and international policies of the government. Together, military workers from these branches are responsible for the safety and
Most multimedia artists and animators use their computer skills as well as their artistic abilities to produce computer games that may entertain, test, and even teach players. Artists and animators work as part of a team that develops a concept for a game, its rules, various levels of play, and its story from beginning to
Multimedia sound workers are responsible for creating the audio aspects of computer and video games. Their work is essential to a game’s success—adding to a game’s intensity and dimension and enhancing gamers’ playing experiences. Ironically, though, when sound workers have done their jobs well, the sound becomes such an integral part of the video game
Music journalists report on the latest music releases and public performances of all genres. Their work appears in print and online newspapers and magazines, or is used in radio or television broadcasts. They work on periodical staffs or as freelance writers. As newspapers have grown in size and widened the scope of their coverage, it
Music teachers instruct people on how to sing, play musical instruments, and appreciate and enjoy the world of music. They teach private lessons and classes. They may work at home or in a studio, school, college, or conservatory. Many music teachers are also performing musicians. Music teachers make up a very small percentage of the
“Lights! Camera! Action!” aptly summarizes the major responsibilities of the music video director. Directors are well known for their part in guiding actors, but they are involved in much more—casting, costuming, cinematography, lighting, editing, and sound recording. Music video directors must have insight into the many tasks that go into the creation of a music
Neurologists are physician specialists who diagnose and treat patients with diseases and disorders affecting such areas as the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, muscles, and autonomic nervous system. Neurologist Career History The development of modern neurology began in the 18th and 19th centuries. Studies were performed on animals in order to understand how the human
Nuclear engineers are concerned with accessing, using, and controlling the energy released when the nucleus of an atom is split. The process of splitting atoms, called fission, produces a nuclear reaction, which creates radiation in addition to nuclear energy. Nuclear energy and radiation has many uses. Some engineers design, develop, and operate nuclear power plants
Death is a universal inevitability, but human responses are different. How people deal with death has always been closely studied by anthropologists. Death-related beliefs and practices provide a window for viewing a society’s social organization, cultural values, and worldviews. With a long-term perspective, this window can also allow us to see mechanisms of culture change
There have been elements of degenerationist thinking for many centuries, although the term only arose in the 19th century in a specific context of evolutionary theory. Many ancient cultures understood their times as degenerate remnants of a golden age. For example, traditional Chinese history spoke of the golden age of the philosopher-king who is said
Deleuze was a philosopher deeply influenced by his French predecessor Henri Bergson and early on by philosophical phenomenology, though he moved away from the latter in his most famous work. The pattern of his most influential work emerged in Nietzsche and Philosophy (first published in 1962), where he read Friedrich Nietzsche as the opponent of
The oldest and the simplest relative dating method is stratigraphic dating. Relative dating, properly applied to sedimentary materials, carries no implied rate of change in time. An isolated event can only be deemed to have occurred either before or after another isolated event. This situation obtains because rates of deposition are rarely constant over long
Ella Cara Deloria, also known as Anpetu Waste Win (Beautiful Day Woman), was a noted Yankton Dakota (Sioux) anthropologist, linguist, educator, and novelist. With her intimate knowledge of the Lakota and Dakota dialects combined with an understanding and interest in her own culture as well as the world around her, she worked to preserve the
The term dementia entered the English language from the French in a rendering of French psychiatrist Pinel’s (1745-1826) word “demance” (from Treatise on Insanity, 1806). Its ultimate source is Latin, meaning “loss” (or out) of “mind” or “reason.” Some forms of dementia are transitory, while others are neurodegenerative and fatal. Dementias may co-occur or present
Modern demography seeks to characterize populations or subgroups of populations based upon statistical commonalities or differences between them. Clearly, some of these may be largely cultural (e.g., age of marriage, total fertility, socioeconomic status) or largely biological (e.g., resistance to particular strains of malaria, skin cancer risk, mean height), while others may be almost entirely
Dendrochronology is the study of the dating of trees by their annual rings and, subsequently, other objects, both historical and environmental events and processes. Because of some tree species’ long life spans and growth responses, a reliable pattern of temperature and precipitation has been recorded in their woody tissue. Just beneath the bark of a
American philosopher, Daniel C. Dennett focuses on the philosophical problems concerning science, particularly in the areas of mind and consciousness within an evolutionary framework. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Dennett received his BA from Harvard in 1963 and his PhD in philosophy from Oxford in 1965. After graduation, Dennett taught at the University of California at
Derrida has become a figure of extreme fame and extreme notoriety, neither of which phenomena has aided the evaluation of his work. Despite a later reputation for purposeless obscurity or creatively going beyond conceptual truth, depending on the point of view taken, Derrida started off as a scholar of the very formal and rigorous phenomenological
The assertion about the unique “complexity” or the peculiarly intricate character of social phenomena has, at least within sociology, a long, venerable, and virtually uncontested tradition. The classical theorists make prominent and repeated reference to this attribute of the subject matter of sociology and the degree to which it complicates the development of socio logical
The sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK) is a field of sociology that started to take form in the early 1970s. Sociologists, historians, and philosophers who shared a common interest in studying the social underpinnings of science took as a joint focus the very content of scientific knowledge. Previously, a division of labor had existed between
The sociology of gender is one of the largest subfields within sociology and features theory and research that critically interrogates the social construction of gender, how gender interacts with other social forces in society, and how gender relates to social structure overall. The sociology of gender examines how society influences our understandings and perception of differences
Gender, race, ethnicity, and social class are the most commonly used categories in sociology. They represent the major social statuses that determine the life chances of individuals in heterogeneous societies, and together they form a hierarchy of access to property, power, and prestige. Gender is the division of people into two categories, “men” and “women.”
Candace West and Don Zimmerman introduced the concept ‘‘doing gender’’ in an article of the same title in 1987. They were the first to articulate an ethnomethodological perspective on the creation and affirmation of gender inequality between males and females in western society. The purview of ethnomethodology includes the study of the socially managed accomplishments
Female masculinity refers to a range of masculine inflected identities and identifications. Debates over the status and meaning of female masculinity and the bodies and selves to whom the terms may be ascribed emerge in the context of analyses of sex, gender, and sexuality. Research in social and cultural history has documented the lives of
Femininity and masculinity are acquired social identities: as individuals become socialized they develop a gender identity, an understanding of what it means to be a ‘‘man’’ or a ‘‘woman’’ (Laurie et al. 1999). How individuals develop an understanding of their gender identity, including whether or not they fit into these prescribed gender roles, depends upon
Interest and research in gender and aging have progressed through a variety of different phases, each spurred by developments in both feminist scholarship and aging studies. While each stage has emerged from the previous, all can be found in contemporary theory and research. The first stage, which can be further subdivided into two approaches, involved
The history of consumerism has been shaped by gender inequality. During the colonial period, when families produced most of what they consumed, a gender division of labor prevailed in which men supplied the raw materials (e.g., wheat, flax, animals) and women transformed them into commodities for consumption (e.g., bread, cloth, meals). During industrialization, the period
Over the last half century there have been different theoretical frameworks used to understand how women are located in global economic processes, and each has had a concomitant strategy to enhance women’s position. In the middle of the twentieth century modernization approaches were common, but dependency theorists critiqued these strategies. By the 1970s these male
Almost everything the general public knows of corporations and other organizations is mediated by the mass media. This is especially the case regarding strategic decisions, policymaking, and managerial behaviors. Consequently, the mass media seem to be used by organizations as key publics for public relations in building trust, especially since people tend to trust the
Organizational image is a useful concept for understanding the impressions individuals have of organizations or that organizations want to convey to individuals. The term refers to an image that encapsulates the likeness of an organization. Organizational images can have a strong influence on most aspects of members’ organizational experiences. From an individual perspective, organizational image
Positioning is an essential concept in communication management, public relations, and marketing communication. The process of positioning includes identifying, defining, and managing the perception relevant audiences have of a particular organization, product, person, or idea. Three lines of thought relevant to communication theory have emerged during the last decades: strategic positioning, positioning strategies, and discursive
The term “spin” has historically been associated with political and governmental campaigns. Two prominent citations stem from the Washington Post and New York Times. In 1977, Washington Post staff writer Spencer Rich wrote an editorial about Mike Pertschuk, former chief counsel and staff director, Senate Commerce Committee. Rich accused Pertschuk of “being too ardent a
Stakeholder theory has provoked controversy for more than 70 years, even though the term “stakeholder” is itself of more recent origin. The theory raises a highly contentious question: in whose interests should a business corporation or other type of organization be run? Opponents stress the primacy of shareholder rights. Supporters claim corporations have wider responsibilities
Framing is a rhetorical tool used by communicators to delimit the scope of a situation or argument. Although it is “media framing” that has received extensive attention since the late 1970s, the framing construct is employed to understand communication in a wide range of disciplines, including speech, organizational behavioral, economics, political science, psychology, and sociology.
The “trust of publics” or “public trust” can be defined as a process and outcome of a publicly generated, communicative, complexity-reducing mechanism within which publicly perceptible individuals, organizations, and other social systems act as “trust objects.” Public trust is generated and subjected to change within a mediated, public communication process in which “trust subjects” have
In the 1960s, Chevrolet spent almost its entire US television media budget on one program – the Dinah Shore Show. At that time prime-time viewers had only three network channels to choose from and an advertiser could reach 80 percent of US households on any given evening by running commercials on CBS, NBC, and ABC
Communication scholars interested in new media are increasingly archiving content of the Internet or “web content,” and studying web archives to examine retrospectively content produced and distributed on the web, and the behavior of those producing, sharing, and using the world wide web. Although web archiving has been actively pursued since the mid-1990s, new media
In 1999 Professor Lawrence Lessig, then Berkman Professor for Entrepreneurial Legal Studies at Harvard Law School, later professor of law at Stanford Law School, opened his new book, Code and other laws of cyberspace, with a chapter entitled “Code is law.” This short but complex phrase has, since then, found itself at the heart of
The family is a complex unit comprised of individuals with varied cognitive, emotional, and behavioral characteristics and abilities that can greatly affect family decision-making across an individual’s life-span. “Decision-making” describes the process by which families make choices, judgments, and ultimately come to conclusions that guide behaviors. Family decision-making implies that more than one member’s input
The ability of young children to distinguish between fantasy and reality with regard to television, and the changes that occur in those perceptions have significant implications for their preferences in television content, their comprehension of such content, and their emotional responses (e.g., fear reactions). By applying developmental psychology theories, researchers primarily in the field of
There is a growing body of evidence that the mass media, especially television shows and movies, often induce fear and anxiety in children. Fear is an emotion characterized by the subjective feeling that one is in danger, and is usually accompanied by physiological reactions, including increased heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and other forms
Communication within friendship is important for human development throughout life. Beginning in childhood, friendships shape and reflect developments in social cognition, perspective-taking abilities, moral comportment, and cooperation as equals. During adolescence and younger adulthood, friendships cultivate ethical sensibilities, and understandings and practices of intimacy, identity, and sociability. Across life people describe three benefits of close
The term “intergenerational communication” applies to interactions involving individuals who are from different age cohorts or age groups. Families provide ready examples of individuals whose communication would be classified as intergenerational: parent and child, grandparent and grandchild, aunt and niece, to name a few. These interactions stand in contrast to intragenerational communication or communication between
Internet usage refers primarily to the online activities of visiting web pages and using email. It is reasonable to expect differences in online activities between different age groups. However, international Internet data frequently excludes age as a variable, making age-based analyses more challenging (Findahl 2004). To accurately evaluate the data that does exist, both general
Language acquisition starts before babies utter their first words. Even in the womb, they jump in response to noises, such as fireworks and loud bands; they eavesdrop on their mother’s conversations. Within just hours of birth, newborns recognize their mother’s voice, along with stories and songs they’ve heard in the womb. They can even distinguish
Traditionally, research into the effects of television has assumed that children are passive recipients on whom television has a powerful influence. Since the mid-1970s, however, media effects research has increasingly recognized the child viewer as an active and motivated explorer, rather than a passive receiver. Recent research suggests that children are critical evaluators of what
Media play an important role in the lives of adolescents and children. Especially as they age, today’s children and adolescents are very frequently connected to each other by means of some medium such as email, instant messenger, mobile phones, and beepers. However, when other media such as television, the Internet, video games, and music are
A common finding in media research is that age groups differ in the amount and functions of their media use. Communication scholars have pointed out two possible explanations for such differences. First, there are life-cycle or maturational explanations: media use is supposed to change across the life-span in response to an individual’s development. Second, there
The hospitality and tourism industry provides accommodations, meals, and personal services for both the traveling public and permanent residents. The range of employment opportunities in the industry is vast. All positions, from bellhops to executive chefs to amusement park workers, share the same goal: serving the public. This cluster includes not only those careers that
Accountants compile, analyze, verify, and prepare financial records, including profit and loss statements, balance sheets, cost studies, and tax reports. Accountants may specialize in areas such as auditing, tax work, cost accounting, budgeting and control, or systems and procedures. Accountants also may specialize in a particular business or field; for example, agricultural accountants specialize in
Actuaries use statistical formulas and techniques to calculate the probability of events such as death, disability, sickness, unemployment, retirement, and property loss. Actuaries develop formulas to predict how much money an insurance company will pay in claims, which determines the overall cost of insuring a group, business, or individual. Increase in risk raises potential cost
Mechanical engineers plan and design tools, engines, machines, and other mechanical systems that produce, transmit, or use power. They may work in design, instrumentation, testing, robotics, transportation, or bioengineering, among other areas. The broadest of all engineering disciplines, mechanical engineering extends across many interdependent specialties. Mechanical engineers may work in production operations, maintenance, or technical
Medical laboratory technicians, also known as clinical laboratory technicians, perform routine tests in medical laboratories. These tests help physicians and other professional medical personnel diagnose and treat disease. Technicians prepare samples of body tissue; perform laboratory tests, such as urinalysis and blood counts; and make chemical and biological analyses of cells, tissue, blood, or other
Medical technologists, also called clinical laboratory technologists, are health professionals whose jobs include many health care roles. They perform laboratory tests essential to the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of disease. They work under the direction of laboratory managers and pathologists. Approximately 302,000 medical technologists and technicians are employed in the United States. The history of
The merchant marine is that part of the maritime trade industry concerned with transporting cargo (and sometimes passengers) from place to place via water routes; it is also known as the commercial shipping industry. Merchant mariners operate ships and other water vessels on domestic and international waters. Workers on these ships are divided into three
Metallurgical engineers develop new types of metal alloys and adapt existing materials to new uses. They manipulate the atomic and molecular structure of materials in controlled manufacturing environments, selecting materials with desirable mechanical, electrical, magnetic, chemical, and heat-transfer properties that meet specific performance requirements. Metallurgical engineers are sometimes also referred to as metallurgists. Metallurgical engineers
Metallurgy involves processing and converting metals into usable forms. Metallurgical technicians work in support of metallurgical engineers, metallurgists, or materials scientists. These jobs involve the production, quality control, and experimental study of metals. Metallurgical technicians may conduct tests on the properties of metals, develop and modify test procedures and equipment, analyze data, and prepare reports.
Meteorologists, or atmospheric scientists, study weather conditions and forecast weather changes. By analyzing weather maps covering large geographic areas and related charts, like upper-air maps and soundings, they can predict the movement of fronts, precipitation, and pressure areas. They forecast such data as temperature, winds, precipitation, cloud cover, and flying conditions. To predict future weather
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was the British naturalist who became famous for his theories of evolution and natural selection. He believed that all the life on earth evolved over millions of years from a few common ancestors. He went on expeditions around the world from 1831 to 1836, studying and collecting plants and fossils. Upon his
The history of the interrelation between Charles Darwin and Italy begins long before Darwin’s main works were published. In 1814, the Italian natural scientist Gianbattista Brocchi published his Concchiologia fossile subappenina con osservazioni geologiche sugli Appenini e sul suolo adiacente, in which he supported the theory that species can disappear and do actually become extinct
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) is one of the greatest naturalists in the history of science. His theory of organic evolution delivered a blow to traditional thought by offering a new worldview with disquieting ramifications for understanding and appreciating the human species within natural history. The geobiologist had presented his conceptual revolution in terms of science
Modern Darwinism, also known as the “modern synthesis” or “neo-Darwinism,” is a comprehensive theory of evolution that combines Darwin’s theory of natural selection with principles of Mendelian genetics. Although the theory was established in the 1920s to 1940s and biology has undergone profound and rapid changes since that time, neo-Darwinism is still considered to be
Social Darwinism is the theory that human beings have a natural tendency to compete and that the strong will overcome the weak. The name comes from its association with Charles Darwin’s (1809-1882) biological theories of evolution and natural selection. Like many social theories that attempt to explain human behavior, Social Darwinism can best be seen
Dating is nothing more than ordering time. Time is the quintessential sorter of events. All living beings go through life being on occasion acutely aware of its transient yet eternal, ceaseless yet tenacious quality. Time is the omnipresent judge that indicts all life for existence and condemns it to death. Thus, for the greatest portion
Radiometric dating became a possibility with Becquerel’s discovery in 1896 of natural radioactivity. Rutherford postulated that radioactivity could be used to determine the age of the Earth. His and Soddy’s discovery (1902) of the transmutation of the atom became the basis for understanding exponential decay and the evolution of decay products (“daughter” elements). Age estimates
An English ethnologist and evolutionary biologist, Richard Dawkins was born in Nairobi during the onset of World War II. Spending his formative years in a biologically diverse environment of Africa, the young Dawkins probably cultivated his naturalistic perspectives in East Africa until his family returned to England in 1949. After what can be considered as
Jaime de Angulo (1887-1950), the eccentric amateur anthropologist, helped to move the field of anthropology away from armchair theorizing with decades of intense linguistic fieldwork among, most notably, the Achumawi or Pit River Indians of Northern California. De Angulo collected and studied a wide range of severely endangered languages from the American West and Mexico
Frans De Waal was born in the Netherlands in 1948. He received his training as a zoologist and ethicist from three Dutch universities, earning a PhD in biology from the University of Utrecht in 1977. De Waal moved to the United States in 1981, accepting a research position at the Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center
Criminal law is a body of law that defines and grades crimes, and indicates corresponding punishments. These definitions and punishments are found in statutes and in criminal codes within each state, and within each country. Due to the dual system of government that obtains in the US, the federal government has its own criminal code
The relationship between economy and law has been an important object of inquiry for sociologists. Classical theorists Durkheim and Weber promoted sociology as a discipline by offering theories of this relationship. Today, sociological research on law and the economy provides ideas and empirical evidence to help answer such key questions as: Where do firms and
The term law is surprisingly difficult to define. Perhaps the best-known definition within the sociology of law community is that of Max Weber: “An order will be called law if it is externally guaranteed by the probability that coercion (physical or psychological), to bring about conformity or avenge violation, will be applied by a staff
The concepts of law and society refer to macrostructural phenomena. Is there a macro-oriented theory of law and society or a macro sociolegal theory to guide this field? As an interdisciplinary endeavor, the sociology of law relies upon, or is influenced by, the intellectual assumptions and propositions of general sociology and legal theory. This article
The legal profession refers to all the occupational roles purposely oriented towards the administration and maintenance of the legal system. Encompassing lawyers, judges, counselors, and experts of legal education and scholarship, the legal profession has been the subject of considerable reflection in the sociology of law. This sociological interest parallels the enormous attention devoted to
In The Division of Labor in Society ([1893] 1984), Emile Durkheim advanced the idea that the distinctive sociological feature of crime is society’s reaction to it. Durkheim was writing at a time when Lombroso’s view on the heritability of criminality dominated scientific and popular opinion. Science sought the etiology of crime in the biology of
The sociology of knowledge as a subfield in sociology deals with the social and group origins of ideas. In its brief history as a field of study, it has included the entire ideational realm (knowledge, ideas, theories, and mentalities), in an attempt to comprehend how that realm is related to particular social and political forces and
Knowledge is relevant to sociology as the principle that social relations can be organized in terms of the differential access that members have to a common reality. Until the late eighteenth century, Plato’s Republic epitomized the role of knowledge as a static principle of social stratification. However, the Enlightenment introduced a more dynamic conception, whereby
Knowledge management seeks to increase organizational capability to use knowledge as a source of competitive advantage. The field has risen to prominence along with the ”knowledge worker,” who is someone who does work which involves knowledge which is socially complex, causally ambiguous, and tacit. Relevant theories include social capital theory and the resource based view
The transformation of modern societies into knowledge societies continues to be based, as was the case for industrial society, on changes in the structure of the economies of advanced societies. Economic capital – or, more precisely, the source of economic growth and value adding activities – increasingly relies on knowledge. The transformation of the structures
Fundraising is an organizational function and high-demand occupation unique to nonprofits, or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Although the term fundraising sometimes is used to describe the act of raising capital for for-profit businesses, and fundraising is conducted to finance electoral campaigns for government positions, the function is identified most commonly with raising gifts for charitable nonprofit
One’s image is a very important factor. For example, the oil industry came under fire in 2006 as profits rose along with gasoline prices. Actor and director Mel Gibson was roundly criticized for making anti-Semitic comments while intoxicated. Athletes such as track star Justin Gatlin and cyclist Floyd Landis came under fire for alleged use
Image restoration theory – referred to as “image repair theory” in recent literature, to imply that an image might be improved but not completely restored – addresses the question of what a person or organization can say when accused or suspected of wrongdoing. Our reputation is vital both for our self-esteem and because reputation influences
Issue management is a systematic procedure that helps organizations to identify, analyze, and respond to external or internal concerns that can significantly affect them. On this note, strategic issue management is a managerial function, which creates the information bases for a proactive examination of (potentially) critical themes that can limit strategic scope. It has to
Sethi (1975) defined a “legitimacy gap” as an expectancy gap indicating a discrepancy between an organization’s actions and society’s expectations of this organization. Legitimacy gaps can threaten an organization’s image and reputation, and ultimately its existence as a legitimate member of the business community and society (Bridges 2004). Hence, legitimacy theory asserts that organizations avoid
Lobbying is a strategic process through which groups and organizations carry out activities intended to influence policymakers and the formation of laws and regulations. In the nineteenth century, the term described how agents of interest groups gathered in the lobbies and hallways of the US Capitol in Washington and US state capitols to advocate with
Commonly, people associate selling and advertising with marketing. In the old interpretation, this understanding of marketing was quite right, as marketing primarily comprised making a sale. But today, there is more to marketing than selling, promoting, advertising, and publicizing. Selling and advertising are only two of the many tasks of marketing management. Briefly, marketing is
For the sponsoring organization, the role of marketing communications includes distributing information, promoting image and reputation, creating and stabilizing product and service demand, emphasizing features and benefits, providing competitive differentiation, generating sales leads, ensuring customer retention and loyalty, and motivating staff. To accomplish these and other objectives, there are many marketing communication tools available. They
Media are a crucial part of any advertising campaign. Selecting the most effective media gets the advertising message across to the intended target group. Media are also the most expensive part of advertising campaigns. In a typical media campaign, the media costs account for 80 – 85 percent of the advertising budget (Kelley & Juggenheimer
News media are the dominant way in which organizations of society disseminate information and persuasion to the general public. Networking, relationship building, and producing works to be published in the media are daily work for most public relations (PR) practitioners. The relation between the PR industry and the news media is therefore of interest for
Advertising responses are the thoughts, emotions, and behaviors generated by exposure to a commercial message (Petty & Cacioppo 1996). Responses to advertising can be divided into three general types: cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses. Studies on cognitive responses focus on recall or recognition of advertisements and brands. Affective response studies concentrate on likes and dislikes
Communication plays a substantial role in influencing understandings and self-presentations with regard to age. While the immutable passing of time (and rising chronological age) is at the heart of life-span development issues, our age group identifications and the age groups into which we are categorized are not deterministically organized by chronological age. Rather, age identities
Children, adolescents, and adults use many types of media. These include varieties that do not require input from the user, such as print media, movies, video tapes, DVDs, music, and television, as well as those with more extensive interactive possibilities, such as video games, computer applications, and Internet resources. As the media landscape has become
In democratic societies, the fundamental, core principle of freedom of speech must often be balanced with the need to protect children from harm. This issue has dominated the public debate over children and the media throughout the twentieth century, often moving to the forefront during the entry of a new medium, when parental anxieties are
This article focuses on communication skills associated with success in same-sex friendship across the life-span. The ability to maintain a variety of relationships throughout life is important to people’s well-being, of which friendship is among the most significant. Individuals who lack friends experience myriad adjustment problems including drug and alcohol abuse, academic failure, antisocial conduct
Video games are a prevalent and profitable facet of the modern media entertainment industry. Although children (anyone under the age of 18) comprise only 31 percent of the $10 billion US video game market, their numbers are increasing. Whereas in the 1990s, only 60 percent of middle-school-aged children reported playing video games on a consistent
Conflict is pervasive and has been examined extensively in various relationships and communication contexts (Hocker & Wilmot 1991; Putnam & Poole 1987). Communication scholars, however, have only recently begun to investigate this phenomenon from a lifespan perspective, suggesting that communication among people at different ages deserves special attention. Nussbaum (1989) argued that people of different
Death is considered a taboo topic in most cultures. The lack of willingness to talk about the issue reflects discomfort with the subject and attempts to deny the reality of death. Instead of talking openly about death, most people use euphemisms and metaphors to maintain distance from it. This communicative avoidance then defines death as
If commercial success and global presence are valid indicators of acceptance, then it can be said that children around the world have embraced educational television programming. In 2006, the educational program Sesame Street was broadcast in 120 countries. This included 20 international co-productions to utilize local expertise and accommodate for varying educational and cultural goals.
Communication patterns in families refer to repeated interaction styles and behaviors. A single family member’s communication behaviors over time can be patterned, but family communication scholars tend to focus on patterns among family members. Family relationships are typically involuntary and long-lasting (Vangelisti 1993). One usually cannot choose one’s siblings, for instance, and sibling relationships –
Medical secretaries perform administrative and clerical work in medical offices, hospitals, or private physicians’ offices. They answer phone calls, order supplies, handle correspondence, bill patients, complete insurance forms, and transcribe dictation. Medical secretaries also handle bookkeeping, greet patients, schedule appointments, arrange hospital admissions, and schedule surgeries. There are approximately 373,000 medical secretaries employed throughout the
In any hospital, clinic, or other health care facility, permanent records are created and maintained for all the patients treated by the staff. Each patient’s medical record describes in detail his or her condition over time. Entries include illness and injuries, operations, treatments, outpatient visits, and the progress of hospital stays. Medical record technicians compile
Medical librarians, also called medical information specialists, help doctors, patients, and other medical personnel find health information and select materials best suited to their needs. These specialized librarians work in hospitals, medical schools, corporations, and university medical centers. Over the years the duties of librarians have evolved along with the development of different kinds of
Medical illustrators and photographers use graphics, drawings, and photographs to make medical concepts easier to understand. Medical illustrators provide illustrations of anatomical and biological structures and processes, as well as surgical and medical techniques and procedures. Medical photographers take photos that communicate complex medical or scientific information for use in textbooks, professional journals, and other
Medical ethicists are consultants, teachers, researchers, and policy makers in the field of medical ethics, the branch of philosophy that addresses the moral issues involved in medical practice and research. Medical ethics as a distinct field arose in the 1960s, although, of course, the realization that an ethical code is an essential aspect of the
Medical billers help doctors and other health care professionals get payment for services. They send bills to patients, private insurance companies, Medicare, and other insurers. Using special software, they file insurance claims electronically via an Internet connection. They keep files on patients and insurers, and use medical codes when filing claims. Most billers work from
Medical assistants help physicians in offices, hospitals, and clinics. They keep medical records, help examine and treat patients, and perform routine office duties to allow physicians to spend their time working directly with patients. Medical assistants are vitally important to the smooth and efficient operation of medical offices. There are approximately 387,000 medical assistants employed
Media relations specialists are experienced public relations specialists who have a broad working knowledge of television, radio, and print journalism and skills in establishing a controlled, positive image in the media for a company, person, or organization. They are also referred to as communications consultants. Media relations specialists serve as the liaison between the company
For as long as people have been exchanging goods and services for payment of some sort, business transactions have been a part of life. All businesses can be defined as organizations that provide customers with the goods and services they want. Most businesses attempt to make a profit, that is, make more money than it
You probably spend much of every day complaining about things you do not like about school such as unfair grading practices, broken lockers, or gum under the desks. Although some students will just complain, others will try to change these troubling issues. Perhaps you are prepared to speak to the principal, write to school board
Human beings are the bearers of culture; therefore, it is important to study how humankind has evolved over time as a basis to understand culture change. Periods of culture change indicate the direction in which the strengths and values of said cultures survive and maintain their existence. How to study culture change may be difficult
Social scientists credit Oscar Lewis (1914-1970), an American anthropologist, with introducing the concept of a culture of poverty. He first suggested it in 1959, in his book, Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty. The concept refers to the ideas and behavior developed by poor people in some capitalist societies as they
Culture shock refers to feelings of uncertainty and discomfort experienced by an ethnographer during fieldwork in a different culture. Confronted by a new environment, strangers, and many new behaviors and ideas, almost all ethnographers react emotionally, some with unusual anxiety, anger, sadness, fear, or disorientation. Culture shock tends to resolve over time but may be
The first complete definition of culture in anthropology was provided by Edward Tylor, who defined the concept as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” This definition is taken from Primitive Culture, Tylor’s 1871 cultural evolutionary account
The main place amongst Russian antagonists to Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, and especially his conception of descent of man, belonged to Nikolaj Jakovlevich Danilevsky (1822-1885), the prominent Russian naturalist, economist, historian, philosopher, a head of the late Slavophils, and the author of the original conception of exclusive types of mankind cultures and natural laws
Daoism is a Chinese way of thinking that is best under-stood as being composed of two traditions, philosophical Daoism and religious Daoism. Both traditions are primarily derived from texts of archaic antiquity. Among them are the Dao De Jing (Classic of the Dao and Its Power) and the Zhuang Zi (Master Zhuang). As the major
Late in the year 2000, an intellectual tsunami hit anthropology in America and beyond. It was generated by the controversy surrounding the publication of a book by Patrick Tierney called Darkness in El Dorado: How Anthropologists and Journalists Devastated the Amazon. Five years after its publication, this unprecedented controversy was still rife with debate and
During the peak of his career, Clarence Darrow was the most well-known criminal lawyer in the United States. It is a fact that not one of Darrow’s clients ever received the death penalty under his defense, including the infamous murder trial of Leopold and Loeb, sons of rich socialites. A brilliant maneuver at the last
Australian anatomist and anthropologist Raymond Dart was known for his discovery and analysis of the fossil hominid Australopithecus africanus. Born in Toowong, Brisbane, Australia, Dart was one of nine children born to strict and religious parents. Living and working on his parents’ Australian bush farm, Dart’s pioneer life and naturalistic inclinations would influence both his
We can analyze Charles Darwin’s influence in Germany by examining four connections. These include, first, Darwin’s relationship to social Darwinism and, in particular, to Hitler and the Third Reich, as many people still tend to see a strong link between these two movements. While we cannot regard Darwin as connected to the cruelties of the
Postmodern culture is a far reaching term describing a range of activities, events, and perspectives relating to art, architecture, the humanities, and the social sciences beginning in the second half of the twentieth century. In contrast to modern culture, with its emphasis on social progress, coherence, and universality, postmodern culture represents instances of dramatic historical
The production of culture perspective focuses on the ways in which the content of symbolic elements of culture are significantly shaped by the systems within which they are created, distributed, evaluated, taught, and preserved. The initial focus was on the production of expressive symbols such as art works, scientific research reports, popular culture, religious practices
While the word ‘‘culture’’ was first used in 1877 by Edward Tylor to describe the totality of humans’ behavioral, material, intellectual, and spiritual products, it was Franz Boas who gave the term one of its most distinctive elaborations. Unlike some other anthropologists (e.g., Malinowski), Boas refused to devalue cultures regardless of how primitive they might
Diverse theoretical traditions have been influential in the development of the contemporary sociology of the body, such as philosophical anthropology, Marxist humanism, and phenomenology. However, Michel Foucault (1926–84) has been a dominant influence in late twentieth century historical and sociological approaches. His research on sexuality, medicine, and discipline gave rise to a general theory of
A subculture in general terms is a group with certain cultural features that enable it to be distinguished from other groups and the wider society from which it has emerged. But before it is possible to attempt a more precise clarification of the concept of subculture, it is necessary to examine the wider and related
What is culture in sociology? To produce a definition of culture, one can examine the concept in the abstract, that is, explore the concept theoretically from a variety of standpoints and then justify the definition that emerges through deductive logic. Or one can explore how the concept is used in practice, that is, describe how
The sociology of law is one of the oldest specialty fields in the discipline, reflecting the influence of nineteenth century jurists like Sir Henry Maine (1861) on writers of the founding generation like Tonnies, Weber, and Durkheim. Although it has been a less significant area over the last half century, it is currently undergoing a
Authority is often defined as legitimate power, and contrasted to pure power. In the case of legitimate authority, compliance is voluntary and based on a belief in the right of the authority to demand compliance. In the case of pure power, compliance to the demands of the powerful is based on fear of consequences or
Civil law entails two distinct categories of meaning. It is used to reference Romano Germanic law, one of four broad forms of legal systems that presently are most practiced throughout the world. In this context, civil law is best under stood in juxtaposition to common (Anglo Saxon), religious (e.g., Islamic), and socialist law. Civil law
Courts cover broad perspectives (Gifis 1998). First, the court is a part of the judicial branch of the government consisting of a judge or a few judges responsible for adjudging disputes under the laws. Second, the court represents a judge or judges on the judicial bench. Third, the court is a legislative assembly that interprets
Change management in the context of organizations is the process of planning, directing, and controlling a transition from one set of organizational conditions to another. Change management has been studied for many years in the management and organization studies disciplines. It has not traditionally been considered a communication process, although models of change management typically
For some, communication management is a special way of managing; for others it is the steering of all communications in the context of the organization; for yet others it is the same as public relations (PR), i.e. managing communication itself. This article features the second approach, i.e., communication management as the steering of all communications
The contingency theory of strategic conflict management, which began as an elaboration, qualification, and extension of the value of symmetry propounded in the excellence theory, has, over the last decade, come into its own and emerged as an empirically tested perspective. This article consolidates the maturation and advances of the theory. Much of the literature
Identity is one of the most prominent issues of contemporary organizations. Like individuals, organizations increasingly talk about “having” identities, seeking identities, expressing identities, and even changing identities. And the emphasis on identity is not idle talk. Having become an arena of managerial attention and concern, identity-related activities consume a growing amount of organizational resources and
Perhaps the best way to define corporate communication is to look at the way in which the function developed in companies. Until the 1980s, professionals responsible for communication within their organizations had used the term “public relations” to describe communication with stakeholders (a term still used in academic circles across the world). This public relations
Corporate design is an umbrella term for all of a company’s design-oriented approaches to creating and projecting products/services, messages, brands, and other business or cultural propositions to external or internal audiences. Corporate design points to a potentially value creating, integrating business function. It deals with many design matters, embracing much more than the company logo.
Corporate (or organizational) reputation refers to what is generally said about an organization. Corporate reputation is different than organizational identity by its focus on what other people say about the organization, rather than what the organization itself or its members say. Corporate reputation is distinguished from organizational image in the sense that it is generally
The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) comprises stakeholder expectations of the social, ethical, legal, and economic impacts of an organization. These expectations and the perceptions stakeholders have of an organization’s corporate social responsibility are central outcomes of business planning, management and operations, marketing, advertising, corporate communication, and public relations. Organizations seek to be perceived
The topic of crisis communication has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers in public relations, corporate communication, marketing, and management. The ever-growing body of research is both a blessing and a curse. There is a large amount of information, which is good. However, the insights are scattered throughout a myriad of books and
Financial communication entails all of the strategies, tactics, and tools used to share financial data and recommendations with investors and other interested parties. Around the world, companies need strong, proactive financial communication competencies to successfully help shape the evolution of capital markets for themselves and their industries. In return, companies likely will see the benefits
Radio for development is the strategic use of this medium to effect social changes beneficial to a community, nation, or region. Within the study and practice of communication for national development and social change, radio has claimed a prominent place for a variety of reasons. As an aural medium, radio obviates the need for a
When Everett M. Rogers passed away on October 21, 2004, his ashes were returned to the family’s Pinehurst Farm in Carroll, Iowa, where he was born on March 6, 1931. In a career spanning 47 years, he wrote 36 books, some 325 peer-reviewed journal articles and book chapters, and over 100 research reports. His prolific
Rural development was the almost exclusive focus of the early development of communication endeavors in the 1950s. The focus was on economic outcomes and, to a great extent, the emphasis was placed on agriculture, with some attention to how the mass media (radio and print at first, then television from the 1960s) could improve the
Wilbur Schramm (1907–1987) has been called the founder of the field of communication study (Rogers 1995). More accurately, he is credited with creating the first PhD program in mass communication at the University of Illinois in 1948 (McAnany 1988) and setting the stage for the growth of university communication programs in the USA and abroad.
Social mobilizations are concrete evidence of commitment and activism aimed at some form of social transformation, whether in the formal sense of changing laws or by influencing informal social norms. Mobilizations are episodic and shorter-lived than movements, and are often key milestones in the history of movements, providing observable evidence of solidarity, progress, and public
Most approaches to development communication are grounded in economic frameworks concerned with how material resources are allocated in society. The dominant modernization philosophy aims to maximize individual opportunities for material gain, while critical perspectives argue for just distributions of resources and against the inequities of capitalist systems. Both literatures usually fail to consider non-material aspects
The idea of sustainable development has, for several decades, held out the promise of reconciling the competing goals of economic growth and environmental preservation. The term proposes that economic growth should not be carried out without consideration of environmental and social concerns. This represents a departure from traditional development thinking that suggests that social and