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Over the years, academics and practitioners have worked to define public relations by what it accomplishes, the role it plays...

The term “professionalization” refers to the way in which occupations become recognized as professions, usually explained by a range of...

Public affairs is both a generic term for the trends and conditions that define and result from socio-economic–socio-political trends, and...

A core responsibility of communicators in public relations is to manage issues. Public relations holds the substantial moral responsibility of...

The notion of public diplomacy has been used in international relations and in international communication studies since about the mid-1960s....

Evaluation is a management tool that allows the user to establish whether a project or campaign has had its intended...

The media law regimes in Africa are the result of a confluence of historical and political factors: first, the authoritarian...

Generally speaking, censorship is the control of speech and other forms of human expression. For the most part, bodies that...

The American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR) is the leading Organization of American States (OAS) human rights treaty. Adopted in...

The role of advertising as a pervasive communication continues to expand around the world. In response, many societies face greater...

Access to the media encompasses the efforts and rights of individuals and groups to represent their views through the pages...

Today, the law of intellectual property encompasses the legal concerns represented by copyrights, trademarks, patents, design rights, trade secrets, and...

The Inter-American Court of Human Rights, established by the American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR), is the leading regional human...

The Internet is a global network of computer networks linked by various information and telecommunication infrastructures and technologies. The Internet...

“Knowledge is power,” said English lawyer and philosopher Francis Bacon (1561–1626). But sometimes journalists have the knowledge while the government...

The law of defamation targets false communication, whether by words, pictures, gestures, or music, that causes one’s reputation to be...

Signal mechanics or signal maintainers are railroad employees who install, repair, and maintain the signals, signal equipment, and gate crossings...

Sign language interpreters help people who use sign language communicate with people who can hear and speak. They translate a...

Sheet metal workers fabricate, assemble, install, repair, and maintain ducts used for ventilating, air-conditioning, and heating systems. They also work...

Security consultants and security guards are responsible for protecting public and private property against theft, fire, vandalism, illegal entry, and...

Secret Service special agents are employed by the U.S. Secret Service, part of the Department of Homeland Security. Secret Service...

Secondary school teachers teach students in grades seven through twelve. Specializing in one subject area, such as English or math,...

Screenwriters write scripts for entertainment, education, training, sales, television, and films. Screenwriters may choose themes themselves, or they may write...

School nurses focus on students’ overall health. They may work in one school or in several, visiting each for a...

Science and medical writers translate technical medical and scientific information so it can be disseminated to the general public and...

Sales representatives, also called sales reps, sell the products and services of manufacturers and wholesalers. They look for potential customers...

With a varied and lengthy pedigree, environmental archaeology has grown in importance in recent decades. What was once seen just...

Maritime archaeology is a subdiscipline of archaeology dedicated to examining prehistoric and historic sites related to aquatic environments. This can...

Defining Medieval Archaeology The European Middle Ages or Medieval period begins with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in...

Salvage (or compliance) archaeology is performed in response to local, state, and federal historic preservation mandates. Compliance archaeology ensures that...

The built environment in which we live as humans is an important matter. The architectural landscape deeply structures our lives....

The Arctic is the region of Earth where the sun never rises for one 24-hour period in the winter and...

American anthropologist, author, and playwright, Robert Ardrey was known for his contributions to anthropology, the gilded stage, and silver screen....

Argentina is the second largest country in South America with a population of 39,144,753. Although the official language is Spanish,...

Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, one of the key intellectual figures in the history of Western philosophy...

At present, the codirector of the Atapuerca project, Juan Luis Arsuaga Ferreras (1954—) is one of the two most outstanding...

In 1990, development assistance for health (DAH) flowing from the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries amounted to...

By the end of 2009, the year in which Mexico first reported human infections with the H1N1 influenza A virus...

Recent years have seen important shifts in global development assistance for health (DAH). Global health initiatives (GHIs) – consisting of...

Public goods have, for centuries, been part of the economic analysis of government policy at the national level. This has...

Concerns about the macroeconomic consequences of the human immunodeficiency virus, and the associated acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) have been fueled...

With increasing globalization, countries have opened up their borders to trade in goods and services, often including health services. This...

There has been considerable debate in recent years regarding globalization of health services and its implications for exporting and importing...

The first section of this article reviews the risks associated with cross-border trade as well as legal consequences of trade...

Rapid increases in overweight and obesity prevalence rates over the last few decades, accompanied (and caused) by widespread dietary imbalances,...

Scientific literacy, and more so the public understanding of science, have recently become areas of study in their own right...

The term model is used in multiple ways in science and there are several different kinds of models. The most...

The notion that scientists and other scholars constitute a kind of community of scholars has frequently been asserted and discussed...

The classic sociological formulation of the scientific norms was given by Robert K. Merton, in an article originally published as...