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All the goods and services used in everyday life possess intrinsic qualities that meet human wants, and even those that...

Media enterprises operating under various types of media systems globally all have incentives to perform well and compete with other...

Concentration of ownership in the media sector presents important problems for the cultural industries. First, concentration creates dominant positions for...

Consolidation refers to the expansion of media firms through mergers and acquisitions. Formally, it is distinct from the concentration of...

Communication researchers have devoted a substantial amount of attention to understanding consumers in media markets. The processes by which audiences...

Media rely on different combinations of revenue from consumers and advertisers to pay production costs and earn a profit. Reliance...

Marketing refers to activities that promote and organize the distribution and sales of products to consumers. Specifying “cross-media” focuses on...

Communication requires the distribution of information from its creator to audiences, through some medium. This may occur in simple ways,...

Diversification is a defining characteristic of media firms and products in the new millennium. There was a time when media...

Since Samuelson (1958), the economic literature has considered that production in the media industries (films, TV programs, music, etc.) is...

Pay-for-performance reward systems are one of the major types of variable-based pay plans. In compensation terms, the guaranteed salary a...

Phased retirement (or gradual retirement) normally means that an older worker remains with his or her employer while gradually reducing...

Rater errors are errors in judgment that occur in a systematic manner when an individual observes and evaluates another. What...

The term wrongful dismissal (or discharge) describes those instances where an employer illegally chooses to terminate (including a constructive discharge,...

The workplace has become a common and natural place for romantic relationships to evolve. It is where most employees spend...

Two-career relationships, also referred to as dual-career families, represent a unique variation of the larger category of two-wage relationships or...

Employment practices are biased or unfair when employment decisions (e.g., hiring, promotion, job transfer) are based on factors (e.g., race,...

Wellness and fitness programs sponsored by and conducted in organizations have historically aimed at enhancing individual health, providing health risk...

White-collar work is perceived as being corporate level or business-oriented and is performed in an office setting or at a...

Social constructionism is a postmodern perspective that emphasizes the socially constructed nature of knowledge. Underscoring the linguistic and relational nature...

The art of communication has been practiced by many people in many different ways. However, one individual by the name...

In his seminal book, Peasants, Eric Wolf explains that peasants are “those large segments of mankind which stand midway between...

Pentecostalism is a global religious movement that focuses on the immediate experience and empowerment of the Holy Spirit. It is...

Any consideration of cultural diversity in the world, past and present, cannot ignore the People’s Republic of China and Taiwan....

Archaeology in the South American country of Peru has an extensive history that has uncovered the development of the largest...

Ancient Petra (Greek: “rock”), located in the southeast corner of modern Jordan, was the capital of the Nabataeans, and later,...

Petroglyphs are a subset of the general category of rock art or rock graphics, which also includes pictographs and geoglyphs....

Peyote (Lophophora williamsii) Cactaceae is a spineless cactus that is native to central and northern Mexico and to the Rio...

Throughout the history of Western thought there have been key thinkers who have approached the world through a process view....

Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds. Unlike phonemics (the study of the organization of speech sounds into a...

Psychological profiling is a relatively new investigative technique that, in the past 30 years, has developed from what used to...

Prosecutorial misconduct is any courtroom behavior on the part of the prosecutor that violates trial rules and denies defendants their...

Proxy decision making (also known as substituted judgment) refers to the use of the legal system to replace one person’s...

Psychiatric advance directives (PADs) allow competent persons to document advance instructions for their future mental health treatment or designate a...

A psychological autopsy (or psychiatric autopsy—the terms are used interchangeably) is a reconstructive mental state evaluation (RMSE) focused on understanding...

The Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) is an 80-item self-report inventory designed to measure eight thinking styles presumed...

The Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) is a widely used self-report measure designed to detect the principal personality traits of psychopathy....

Although psychopathy may be viewed as an evolutionary adaptation that serves the individual well, it typically is construed as a...

The treatment of psychopathy is a controversial and underinvestigated area of study. Many researchers and clinicians have suggested that the...

The term psychosis was first used in the medical literature by Ernest von Feuchtersleben in his textbook Principles of Medical...

The need for the companionship of others is one of the fundamental features of human social nature, and talk is...

Any discussion of questions and questioning needs to distinguish between questions as a linguistic form and the various social actions...

A public meeting is a gathering in which there are limited, if any, restrictions on who may participate. Public meetings,...

The terms “voice,” “prosody,” and “laughter” refer primarily to vocal, nonlinguistic aspects of communication. Human communication is rich with meaning...

The economics of advertising are crucially important in understanding the history of modern mass media as well as their continued...

As a neo-liberal approach to media policymaking has spread, many nations have relied more heavily on competition and the marketplace...

The audience commodity is the main product produced by media that earn their primary revenues from advertisers. Traditionally, advertiser-supported media...

In the late 1800s, a brand was a tool used to identify ownership. Cattle ranches placed their brands on their...

Circulation is the fundamental audience measure for print publications such as newspapers and magazines. Its importance lies in the fundamental...

“Commerce” is a longstanding synonym for business as it is conducted in capitalist societies. It refers both to the institutions...