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Although American community colleges (formerly known as junior colleges) have existed since the late nineteenth century, little sociological attention has...

Critical pedagogy challenges both students and teachers to channel their experiences of oppression into educating and empowering marginalized peoples. Critical...

One of the central goals of sociological studies of education has been to understand the role of schools in society....

Many authors have explained the concept of organized crime through various characteristics. After reviewing how organized crime became established in...

The United States’ prison system is populated by several prison gangs. Prison gangs are organizations of prisoners that engage in...

From a historical standpoint, prison gangs first emerged in the 1950s in Washington State. Their purpose was to provide social...

Prostitution is broadly defined as the performance of sexual acts for financial remuneration. It is estimated that 40–42 million people...

The U.S. Congress enacted the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act of 1970 (RICO) to deal with group crime, including...

The Sicilian Mafia is a translocal fraternal organization whose respective local families called cosche (singular, cosca) lay claim to rural...

Not all gangs are created equal. Although there is no strictly agreed upon definition of what a street gang is,...

In the mid-20th century, around the time of the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, radical inmate gangs...

Street gangs are rapidly evolving, becoming regional, national, and even international in terms of criminal operations. This globalization of gang-related...

Illegal weapons trafficking accounts for only a small percentage of the billion plus dollar annual worldwide arms trade, but it...

The topic of domestic violence and its associated social, economic, and psychological costs may elicit strong reactions from the public...

With the advent of the women’s liberation movement in the early 1970s, gender inequality and the subordination of women became...

Battered women’s paradoxical responses to their abusers have perplexed professionals and laypersons alike. These responses include expressing love for the...

This research paper discusses law enforcement training practices for handling domestic violence cases. It covers three broad topics: definitions of...

Attention-deficit disorder (ADD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are among the most frequent diagnoses in child and adolescent psychiatry. Diagnosis for...

On February 14, 2008, a lone gunman made his way into an oceanography class at Northern Illinois University (NIU) and...

Battered woman syndrome (BWS) is a term that was first used in the mid-1970s to describe the psychological effects that...

There are basically four types of batterer intervention programs: same-sex group therapy (for example, a group of males sent to...

Male Violence against an Intimate Female Partner Physical aggression against an intimate partner is a serious problem. While both men...

In the 1970s, the women’s movement raised public awareness relative to the extent and magnitude of domestic violence in American...

Photojournalism means reporting visually. Yet this simple definition belies the complexity of a professional media practice whose mission remains constant,...

The development of picture magazines is a twentieth-century phenomenon, aided by print technologies that offered quality reproduction of photographs in...

There have been many disputes over the definition of portraits and some of them have ended up in court (in...

Posters are visual means of communicating messages to large public audiences. A poster is a printed mass media product. Although...

Printing, strictly defined, is the process by which ink is transferred from a prepared matrix to another surface; prints are...

There is no more difficult concept to clearly define than that of propaganda. Countless books and learned essays have grappled...

From its very beginnings, photography was understood and experienced in terms of its capacity for realism. “It is not merely...

The French film theorist Christian Metz coined the term “scopic regime” in The imaginary signifier (1982, 1st pub.1975) to distinguish...

The sign, in terms first articulated by Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913), the Swiss linguist, has come to serve as the...

Sign systems mediate the interactions between agents and their worlds. In Peirce’s (1992, 1998) terms, an agent is a first....

Information scanning concerns information acquisition from routine patterns of exposure to mediated and interpersonal sources. The essential idea is that...

In the context of information seeking through mass media use, the concept of informational utility has been developed to predict...

Interactivity is regarded as one of the most critical concepts in new media theories due to the increasing popularity of...

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and volition are important constructs in research on selective exposure to media. Building on recent psychological...

Involvement is included in numerous theories and empirical studies of information processing, persuasion, advertising, knowledge acquisition, and other media effects....

The Islamic Republic of Iran (population approx. 67,500,000 in 2004; adult literacy rate 77.1 percent) was established as a result...

Israel, a young democracy, established in 1948, with a 120-member unicameral parliament elected officially every four years in universal, proportional,...

The term “media equation” means that media equal real life. It implies that people process technology-mediated experiences in the same...

The terms “pseudo-event” and “media event” refer to the phenomenon that in modern societies many events are created with the...

Mass media content is created for audience consumption. Without at least a small audience, the communication process remains unilateral and...

Cosmetology Careers Background From a new summer hairdo to a milk and honey facial, from a leg waxing to an...

Dance Careers Background Dance is one of the oldest of the arts. Anthropologists believe the first formal dances were probably...

Defense Careers Background From simple rocks to sophisticated satellite surveillance systems, people have always sought ways to defend themselves and...

Dental Careers Background Although modern dentistry dates back only to the 1700s, archeologists have provided evidence of dental treatment from...

Geoscience Careers Background Curiosity about the physical world inspired the development of the earth sciences, sometimes called geosciences. The earth...

Education Careers Background American colonists first began establishing elementary schools for their children in the early 17th century. These schools...

Electronics Careers Background The electronics industry is composed of organizations involved in the manufacture, design and development, assembly, and servicing...