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American gangs first emerged in the late 18th century when large groups of immigrants migrated to the United States. Upon...

The Aryan Brotherhood (AB; aka Alice Baker, One-Two, or The Brand) is one of the most notorious prison gangs in...

Biker gangs, also known as outlaw motorcycle gangs, are close-knit factions of motorcyclists connected by collective attributes such as deviant...

There is a growing and rather extensive literature on strategic planning. For example, the Learning Resource Center at the FBI Training...

Police often apprehend criminals through deception or sting tactics. To hasten compliance to laws, police utilize their knowledge of crime to...

As it has evolved since the 1835 formation of the Texas Rangers, state law enforcement has fallen primarily into three categories:...

The spatial concentration of crime and victimization at geographic locations is a well known and robust empirical finding within criminology. Several...

A simple but profound shift in thinking has helped police organizations to realize new gains in crime control, crime reduction, victimization,...

Shift work refers to a work schedule that is different from the traditional eight-hour, five-day-per-week daytime schedule. Examples of shift work...

The office of the county sheriff has now entered its second millennium, having originated in the late tenth century. But, despite...

The Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act of 1994 (SDFSCA) is federal legislation designed to help school districts create...

Animal abuse or animal cruelty is a complex, multidimensional phenomenon, which only recently has come to the attention of researchers...

On average, intimate partners kill approximately 2,000 Americans every year. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (Rennison 2002), spouses,...

All animals must act in their environment in order to survive. They must also react to changes in the environment,...

Classical  definitions  of  retention  emphasize  the degree to which people are able to remember (or perform)  some  previously  practiced  material ...

Sensory  systems  are  the  peripheral  parts  of  the nervous system responsible for the transformation of  physical  stimuli  into  a  neural ...

The  importance  of  interacting  personal,  task, and  environmental  constraints  on  the  emergent behaviors  of  individuals,  as  they  assemble  functional states...

Timing our actions is something we do thousands of times a day without thinking twice—controlling our eyes to read this...

In  sport,  transfer  of  learning  is  generally  defined as  the  influence  of  previous  experience  of  performing  a  skill  on  the ...

Culture  refers  to  the  context  in  which  people develop their perspective on, and approach to, life. Numerous cultures exist, representing...

The term adaptation has been integrated within the sport psychology literature, from as early as 1986. Initially mentioned in relation...

Assimilation  refers  to  the  integration  of  one  culture  into  another.  This  integration  may  include changes  in  cultural  characteristics  such  as ...

Clients in sport and exercise psychology contexts are from a diversity of cultural backgrounds. The terms individualism and collectivism have...

Provisionally, we can define cinema as on-screen (and even large-screen) presentation of moving images that have been pre-recorded photo-chemically on...

Cinematography is the technique of photographing motion pictures. The art of cinematography involves working with three distinct sets of tools:...

A code is a term in semiotics that designates a set of related signs or signifying practices that correspond to...

Comics, either in the form of newspaper strips (funnies) or comic books, combine text and images to carry a narrative...

Community video is one form of community media. It is best defined by its objective, which is to stimulate participation...

Dance is a complex visual form that communicates through movement in time and space, often in conjunction with music and...

Design is the human power to conceive, plan, and make all of the products that serve human beings in the...

Two distinct processes can give rise to digital images. On the one hand, they can be created entirely by computer,...

Among the qualities that distinguish films considered documentary are: (1) explicit reference to the historical world that surrounds the film,...

It is commonly assumed that an ethnographic film is any documentary about nonwestern cultures. There is scholarly debate about its...

Cognitive dissonance is a theory developed in the late 1950s by US psychologist Leon Festinger, which claims that people tend...

The world wide web has revolutionized the ways in which people communicate. People can have simultaneous online chats with colleagues...

In social psychology, consistency theories constitute a body of four theories: Leon Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory (1957), Fritz Heider’s balance...

Co-viewing is the viewing of media content in groups. Typically, the co-viewing group is a dyad, but the term can...

Empathy is a social emotion. It comes in response to bearing witness to the emotions of others, usually persons but...

As early as 1962, Elihu Katz and David Foulkes wondered why communication researchers had almost exclusively addressed mass media’s persuasive...

Entertainment education is defined as the “process of purposely designing and implementing a media message to both entertain and educate,...

Escapism was introduced as an explanation for people’s use of entertainment media in the 1950s. The tremendous popularity of entertainment...

Ethnic media are media vehicles (e.g., specific programs, publications, promotional pieces) that carry culturally relevant messages designed for and targeted...

Harold Garfinkel introduced the term “ethnomethodology” (by analogy to “ethnoscience”) in the 1950s and 1960s and gave the approach its...

Silverware artisans include designers and artists, as well as silversmiths, who are skilled workers and repairers of silver and a...

Software designers are responsible for creating new ideas and designing prepackaged and customized computer software. Software designers devise applications such...

Software engineers are responsible for customizing existing software programs to meet the needs and desires of a particular business or...

Soil scientists study the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soils to determine the most productive and effective planting strategies....

Sports broadcasters, or sportscasters, for radio and television stations select, write, and deliver footage of current sports news for the...

Sports executives, sometimes known as team presidents, CEOs, and general managers, manage professional, collegiate, and minor league sports teams. They...

Stadium, arena, and facility managers, sometimes called general managers, sports facility managers, or stadium operations executives, are responsible for the...