Cognitive equilibrium refers to a state of balance between an individual’s mental schemata, or frameworks, and his or her environment. Such balance occurs when our expectations, based on prior knowledge, fit with new knowledge. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980) developed the concept of equilibrium to describe one of four critical factors in cognitive development, along
Predicting school achievement as well as traditional psychometric measurements of intellectual abilities, cognitive styles are not abilities themselves but rather preferred ways of applying the abilities one has. Typically, cognitive styles refers to the manner in which individuals receive, process, and apply information. Unlike individual differences in abilities that often are arranged by descriptions of
Cognitive theories of personality focus on the processes of information encoding and retrieval, and the role of expectations, motives, goals, and beliefs in the development of stable personality characteristics. This approach differs from personality theories that emphasize either the conditions within which personality develops (e.g., behavioral theories) or the trait structures that are revealed in
Developed over nearly five decades by Albert Bandura, social cognitive theory—which emphasizes the reciprocal interaction of behavior, cognitive, and other personal factors, and environmental influences on human functioning—has been carefully derived from empirical findings and subjected to repeated tests within many areas of human functioning. This reciprocal process of theory development and testing has, over
In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the purpose of children’s thinking is to help them adapt to the environment in increasingly efficient ways. The techniques children use to adapt to the environment are called schemes. Schemes are action patterns that children transfer or generalize by repeating them in similar circumstances or in meeting recurring needs.
Cognitive therapy is based on the idea that beliefs determine feelings and behavior. Albert Ellis, who along with Aaron Beck pioneered the cognitive approach to therapy, favored this quote by the Stoic philosopher Epictetus (first century A.D.): “What disturbs people’s minds is not events but their judgments on events.” Cognitive therapists use a variety of
Attention is what helps us to maintain perception, thought, and behavior despite distraction. There are many varieties of attention, each with a different purpose and dependent on different brain mechanisms in order to function. Attention can be separated into three main categories: selection, vigilance, and control. There are many theories regarding the mechanisms of different
The theory of cognitive dissonance, invented by Leon Festinger in 1957, is generally considered to be social psychology’s most important and most provocative theory. Simply stated, cognitive dissonance is a state of tension that occurs whenever an individual simultaneously holds two cognitions (ideas, attitudes, beliefs, opinions) that are psychologically inconsistent with each other. Two cognitions
Cognitive Dissonance Theory Definition Introduced by Leon Festinger in 1957—and since that time debated, refined, and debated again by psychologists—cognitive dissonance is defined as the aversive state of arousal that occurs when a person holds two or more cognitions that are inconsistent with each other. The concept of dissonance was once enormously controversial, but its
Adaptation takes place simultaneously, and in many ways, it is a complementary process to organization. Like organization, adaptation is a process that has its theoretical roots in biology, which also reflects Piaget’s early training as a biologist. Adaptation is the individual’s adjustment to the environment. The plant and animal kingdom abound with examples of adaptation