Although scholars take differing perspectives on the purposes and functions of control and authority, the definitions of these two terms are quite clear. In an organization, to “control” means to constrain work processes, human activity, and environmental events so that the organization creates value. That is, a refrigerator-manufacturing business must control work processes so that
The term locus of control originated in the social learning approach to behavior change in the early 1960s, and the first publication that explicitly examined this topic appeared in 1962. As originally proposed by Julian Rotter, a clinical and social psychologist, locus of control (LOC) refers to a dispositional tendency to perceive events and outcomes
Relational control is the most dynamic of the three dimensions of social relationships proposed by Millar and Rogers (1987) – the other two are trust and intimacy. Control represents the vertical “distance” between the persons in an ongoing interaction; it refers to the pattern of rights and obligations to define or direct and to defer
Control has been conceptualized in many different ways in psychological literature, but the prototype for control is the belief that an agent acting through some means can affect an outcome. Exercise and sport have been examined both as outcomes of personal control beliefs and as means to achieve health and fitness outcomes. However, the effects
Concepts from control theory date back to the early 1900s; however, the origination of control theory is usually ascribed to the publication of Norbert Wiener’s 1948 acclaimed work, Cybernetics: Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. To describe control theory simply, one could generalize that it is premised in understanding and describing self-regulating
Drugs are used for performance enhancement purposes in elite, competitive, and amateur sports. Unlike heroin, barbiturates, hallucinogens, and substances used for recreational purposes in other subcultures, athletes use and abuse drugs presumed to enhance athletic ability and performance, known as ergogenic substances. The most common performance-enhancing drugs include amphetamines and a range of substances thought
Motor control, in reference to movements of an organism or motions of a robot, is often conceived of as a computational problem. How is something or someone able to move to achieve various environmental goals? For human movement, in particular, the question of how individuals are able to organize the motor system at multiple levels
Numerical control tool programmers, also called computer numerical control tool programmers, develop programs that enable machine tools to produce parts automatically. These precisely made parts are used in automobiles, airplanes, industrial machinery, and other durable goods. There are approximately 143,000 numerical control programmers and operators in the United States. One of the earliest attempts to
Control theories are unique in the field of criminology in that they intend to answer a different question than do most other theories. While most criminological theories are intended to explain why criminals offend, control theories seek to identify the reasons why persons refrain from criminal activity. Thus the assumptions are that crime is not
In 1791, the United States Constitution was ratified. The Second Amendment of the Constitution states, “A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.” This amendment has since been debated in the courts and legislatures. Over the