Hierarchy is a defining characteristic of organizations. The earliest formal theories of organization – bureaucratic theory and administrative management – held hierarchy at the core of management processes, emphasizing chain of command, order, control, and discipline. These processes occur in the context of supervisor–subordinate relationships. Supervisor–subordinate relationships are workplace relationships in which one partner (the
Two-career relationships, also referred to as dual-career families, represent a unique variation of the larger category of two-wage relationships or dual-earner families. This entry begins with a definition of two-career relationships and how this family form differs from the larger category of dual-earner families. Described next are factors related to its emergence and increased prevalence
Peers have a particularly powerful social influence on youth development, particularly during adolescence. Positive peer interactions can help adolescents acquire a range of skills, attitudes, and behaviors. In sport settings, high levels of peer support and quality friendships have been associated with higher ratings of sport enjoyment, commitment, intrinsic motivation, and perceived competence. Definitions Alan
Relationships are considered long-distance when opportunities for communication are restricted due to geographic constraints. Long-distance relationships (LDRs) are of interest given the implicit assumption in much interpersonal scholarship that relationships without frequent face-to-face contact are not as “close” as those with such contact (Stafford & Merolla 2007). LDRs exist in opposition to norms for shared
Online relationships may form using real-time chats or email from associations originating in listservs, chatrooms, interactive games, social networking sites, and many other social venues on the Internet. They may be limited to a single encounter or they may involve repeated interaction over time. They may be conducted exclusively online or involve additional media, including
Dating relationships have no uniform defining characteristics. They have romantic or sexual overtones, occur between two people who are not married to each other or to anyone else, typically do not share a residence, have not formally acknowledged plans to marry, and may or may not expect continued involvement. These relationships vary in expectations for
Historically, family scholarship has been guided by a Eurocentric perspective including the notion that families are ethnically homogeneous. Over the last few decades, a shift in social acceptance of interethnic relationships coupled with changes in national laws (e.g., a 1967 US Supreme Court ruling abolished the last legal barrier to interracial marriages) has resulted in
The desire to perform as well as possible in situations with a high degree of (personally felt) importance is thought to create performance pressure. Paradoxically, despite the fact that performance pressure often results from aspirations to function at one’s best, pressure-packed situations are where major performance failures may be most visible. The term choking under
A growing interest in old siblings reflects the potential increase in their importance at a time when union dissolution is high and birth rates low. For many subjects, a definition merely begins the story. In the case of older siblings, defining the term and exploring different types of sibship remain compelling research challenges. Traditional definitions
Over the years, academics and practitioners have worked to define public relations by what it accomplishes, the role it plays in society. One attempt at positioning the practice, and research about the practice, features the impact public relations can have on the quality of the relationship between each organization and its key publics, a theme